Translation Topics

Hendiadys

Description

When a speaker expresses a single idea by using two words that are connected with "and," it is called "hendiadys." In hendiadys, the two words work together. Usually one of the words is the primary idea and the other word further describes the primary one.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Often hendiadys contains an abstract noun. Some languages may not have a noun with the same meaning.
• Many languages do not use hendiadys, so people may not understand how the two words work together; one word describing the other.

Examples from the Bible

In the two examples below, the second noun describes the first noun.

... who calls you into his own kingdom and glory. (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULB)

• The noun "glory" describes "kingdom." It is his glorious kingdom.

... for I will give you words and wisdom ... (Luke 21:15 ULB)

• The noun "wisdom" describes "words." They are wise words.

In the example below, the first adjective describes the second adjective.

If you are willing and obedient ... (Isaiah 1:19 ULB)

• The adjective "willing" describes how people should be obedient. They should be willingly obedient. (They should obey willingly.)

Translation Strategies

If the hendiadys would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other options:

1. Substitute the describing noun with an adjective that means the same thing.
2. Substitute the describing noun with a phrase that means the same thing.
3. Substitute the describing adjective with an adverb that means the same thing.
4. Substitute other parts of speech that mean the same thing and show that one word describes the other.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Substitute the describing noun with an adjective that means the same thing.

• ... for I will give you words and wisdom ... (Luke 21:15 ULB)
  • ... for I will give you wise words ...
• ... who calls you to his own kingdom and glory. (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULB)
  • ... who calls you to his own glorious kingdom.

1. Substitute the describing noun with a phrase that means the same thing.

• ... for I will give you words and wisdom ... (Luke 21:15 ULB)
  • ... for I will give you words of wisdom ...
• ... who calls you into his own kingdom and glory. (1 Thessalonians 2:12 ULB)
  • ... who calls you to his own kingdom of glory.

1. Substitute the describing adjective with an adverb that means the same thing.

• If you are willing and obedient ... (Isaiah 1:19 ULB)
  • If you are willingly obedient ...

1. Substitute other parts of speech that mean the same thing and show that one word describes the other.

• If you are, willing and obedient (Isaiah 1:19 ULB) - The adjective "obedient" can be substituted with the verb "obey."
  • If you obey willingly

Hyperbole and Generalization

Description

A speaker or writer can use exactly the same words to say something he means as completely true, as generally true, or as a hyperbole. This is why it can be hard to decide how to understand a statement.

• It rains here every night.

1. The speaker means this as literally true if he means that it really does rain here every night.
2. The speaker means this as a generalization if he means that it rains here most nights.
3. The speaker means this as a hyperbole if he wants to say it rains more than it actually does, usually in order to express a strong attitude toward the amount of rain, such as being annoyed or being happy.

Hyperbole: This is a figure of speech that uses exaggeration. A speaker deliberately describes something by an extreme or even unreal statement, usually to show his strong feeling or opinion about it. He expects people to understand that he is exaggerating.

Generalization: This is a statement that is true most of the time or in most situations that it could apply to. Sometimes when people use strong-sounding words like "all," "always," "none," or "never," they mean exactly "all," "always," "none," or "never." But when people use these words in a generalization, they simply mean "most, "most of the time," "hardly any" or "rarely."

Reasons this is a translation issue

1. Readers need to be able to understand whether or not a statement is completely true.
2. If readers realize that a statement is not completely true, they need to be able to understand whether it is a hyperbole, a generalization, or a lie. (Though the Bible is completely true, it tells about people who did not always tell the truth.)

Examples from the Bible

Examples of Exaggeration

If your hand causes you to stumble, cut it off. It is better for you to enter into life maimed ... (Mark 9:43 ULB)

• Jesus used hyperbole to show how extremely important it is to stop sinning. He did not mean that people should actually cut off their hand, but that we should do whatever we need to do in order not to sin.

The Philistines gathered together to fight against Israel, with thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops as numerous as the sand on the seashore. (1 Samuel 13:5 ULB)

• The author of 1 Samuel used hyperbole to show that there were many, many soldiers in the Philistine army. It showed the great danger that the Israelites were in.

They will not leave one stone upon another ... (Luke 19:44 ULB)

• When Jesus spoke about how Israel's enemies would destroy Jerusalem, he used hyperbole to show that Jerusalem would be terribly destroyed.

Examples of Generalization

Moses was educated in all the wisdom of the Egyptians ... (Acts 7:22 ULB)

• Stephen used the word "all" in a generalization about Moses' education. It means that Moses learned much of what the Egyptians knew and taught, not every single thing.

They found him, and they said to him, "Everyone is looking for you." (Mark 1:37 ULB)

• Jesus' disciples used the word "everyone" in a generalization about who was looking for him. They did not mean that every person in the city was looking for him, but that many people were looking for him, or that all of Jesus' closest friends there were looking for him.

But as his anointing teaches you everything and is true and is not a lie ... (1 John 2:27 ULB)

• John used the word "everything" in a generalization about what God teaches his people. God teaches us about all things that we need to know, not about absolutely everything.

Do not assume that something is an exaggeration just because it seems to be impossible.

... they saw Jesus walking on the sea ... (John 6:19 ULB)

• God does miraculous things. Jesus really did walk on the sea.

Do not assume that the word "all" is always a generalization that means "most."

Yahweh is righteous in all his ways ... (Psalm 145:17 ULB)

• Yahweh is always righteous in everything he does.

Translation Strategies

If the exaggeration or generalization would be natural and people would understand it and not think that it is a lie, consider using it. If not, here are other options.

1. Express the meaning without the exaggeration.
2. For a generalization, show that it is a generalization by using a phrase like "in general" or "in most cases."
3. For a generalization, add a word like "most" or "almost" to show that the generalization is not exact.
4. For a generalization that has a word like "all," always," "none," or "never," consider deleting that word.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Express the meaning without the exaggeration.

• ... thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and troops as numerous as the sand on the seashore. (1 Samuel 13:5 ULB)
  • ... thirty thousand chariots, six thousand men to drive the chariots, and a great number of troops.

1. For a generalization, show that it is a generalization by using a phrase like "in general" or "in most cases."

• The one who ignores instruction will have poverty and shame ... (Proverbs 13:18 ULB)
  • In general, the one who ignores instruction will have poverty and shame ...
• When you pray, do not make useless repetitions as the Gentiles do, for they think that they will be heard because of their many words. (Matthew 6:7)
  • When you pray, do not make useless repetitions as the Gentiles generally do, for they think that they will be heard because of their many words.

1. For a generalization, add a word like "most" or "almost" to show that the generalization is not exact.

• The whole country of Judea and all the people of Jerusalem went out to him. (Mark 1:5 ULB)
  • Almost all the country of Judea and almost all the people of Jerusalem went out to him."
  • Most of the country of Judea and most of the people of Jerusalem went out to him."

1. For a generalization that has a word like "all," always," "none," or "never," consider deleting that word.

• The whole country of Judea and all the people of Jerusalem went out to him. (Mark 1:5 ULB)
  • The country of Judea and the people of Jerusalem went out to him.

Idiom

Description

An idiom is a figure of speech made up of a group of words that, as a whole, has a meaning that is different from what one would understand from the meanings of the individual words. It has a special meaning to the people of the language or culture who use it; someone from outside of the culture usually cannot understand an idiom without someone inside the culture explaining its true meaning. Every language uses idioms.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• People can easily misunderstand idioms in the original languages of the Bible if they do not know the cultures that produced the Bible.
• People can easily misunderstand idioms that are in the source language Bibles if they do not know the cultures that made those translations.
• It is useless to translate idioms literally (according to the meaning of each word) when the target language audience will not understand what they mean.
• Sometimes people may be able to understand an idiom from another culture, but it might sound like a strange way to express the meaning.

Examples from the Bible

But when the young son came to himself ... (Luke 15:17)

• The idiom "came to himself" means that he began to think sensibly. He understood his situation.

... he ... threw himself into the sea. (John 21:7)

• The idiom "threw himself" means that he quickly dived or jumped down into the water.

robbers, who ... beat him, and left him half dead. (Luke 10:30)

• The idiom "half dead" means that he was injured so badly that it appeared that he might die soon.

Let these words go deeply into your ears ... (Luke 9:44 ULB)

• This idiom means "Listen carefully and remember what I say."

My eyes grow dim from grief ... (Psalm 6:7 ULB)

• This idiom means that he cried bitterly for a long time.

Translation Strategies

If the idiom would be clearly understood in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other options.

1. Translate the meaning plainly without using an idiom.
2. Use a different idiom that people use in your own language that has the same meaning.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Translate the meaning plainly without using an idiom.

• But when the young son came to himself ... (Luke 15:17 ULB)
  • But when the young man began to think clearly
• ... he ... threw himself into the sea. (John 21:7 ULB)
  • ... he dived into the sea.

1. Use an idiom that people use in your own language that has the same meaning.

• Let these words go deeply into your ears ... (Luke 9:44 ULB)
  • Be all ears when I say these words to you ...
• My eyes grow dim from grief ... (Psalm 6:7 ULB)
  • I cry my eyes out ...

Irony

Description

Irony is a figure of speech in which the sense that the speaker intends to communicate is actually the opposite of the literal meaning of the words. Sometimes a person does this by using someone else's words, but in a way that communicates that he does not agree with them. People do this to emphasize how different something is from what it should be, or how someone else's belief about something is wrong or foolish. It often expresses anger.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• If someone does not realize that a speaker is using irony, he will think that the speaker actually believes what he is saying. He will understand the passage to mean the opposite of what it was intended to mean.

Examples from the Bible

How well you reject the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9 ULB)

• Here Jesus appears to praise the Pharisees for doing something that is obviously wrong. Through irony, he communicates the opposite of praise: He communicates that the Pharisees, who take great pride in keeping the commandments, are so far from God that they do not even recognize that their traditions are breaking God's commandments. The use of irony makes the Pharisee's sin more obvious and startling.

Jesus answered them, "People who are well do not need a physician; only people who are sick need one. I did not come to call righteous people, but to call sinners to repentance." (Luke 5:31-32)

• When Jesus spoke of "righteous people," he was not referring to people who were truly righteous, but to people who wrongly believed that they were righteous. By using irony, Jesus communicated that they were wrong to think that they were better than others and did not need to repent.

"Present your case," says Yahweh; "present your best arguments for your idols," says the King of Jacob. "Let them bring us their own arguments; have them come forward and declare to us what will happen, so we may know these things well. Have them tell us of earlier predictive declarations, so we can reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled." (Isaiah 41:21-22 ULB)

• People worshiped idols as if their idols had knowledge or power, and Yahweh was angry at them for doing that. So he used irony and challenged their idols to tell what would happen in the future. He knew that the idols could not do this, but by speaking as if they could, he mocked the idols, making their inability more obvious, and rebuked the people for worshiping them.

How honored the king of Israel was today, who undressed himself today before the eyes of the slave girls among his servants, like one of the crude fellows who shamelessly undresses himself!" (2 Samuel 6:20)

• King David's wife said this when she was angry with him for wearing so little clothing when he danced before Yahweh out in the street. When she said "How honored the king of Israel was today," she really meant that he was dishonored and that she was angry about it.

Translation Strategies

If the irony would be understood correctly in your language, translate it as it is stated. If not, here are some other strategies.

1. Translate it in a way that shows that the speaker is saying what someone else believes.
2. Translate the actual, intended meaning of the statement of irony. The actual meaning of the irony is not found in the literal words of the speaker, but instead the true meaning is found in the opposite of the literal meaning of the speaker's words.
3. Translate it in a way that shows the speaker's anger about the situation.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Translate it in a way that shows that the speaker is saying what someone else believes.

   • How well you reject the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9 ULB)
     • You think that you are doing so well, but you reject God's commandment in order to keep your tradition!
     • You act like it is good to reject God's commandment so you may keep your tradition!
   • I did not come to call righteous people, but to call sinners to repentance. (Luke 5:32)
     • I did not come to call people who think that they are righteous, but to call sinners to repentance.

2. Translate the actual, intended meaning of the statement of irony.

   • How well you reject the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9 ULB)
     • You are doing a terrible thing when you reject the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition!
   • "Present your case," says Yahweh; "present your best arguments for your idols," says the King of Jacob. "Let them bring us their own arguments; have them come forward and declare to us what will happen, so we may know these things well. Have them tell us of earlier predictive declarations, so we can reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled." (Isaiah 41:21-22 ULB)
     • "Present your case," says Yahweh; "present your best arguments for your idols," says the King of Jacob. "Your idols cannot bring us their own arguments or come forward to declare to us what will happen so we may know these things well. We cannot hear them because they cannot speak to tell us their earlier predictive declarations, so we cannot reflect on them and know how they were fulfilled."

3. Translate it in a way that shows the speaker's feelings about the situation.

   • How well you reject the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition! (Mark 7:9 ULB)
     • How dare you reject the commandment of God so you may keep your tradition!

Litotes

Description

Litotes is a figure of speech in which the speaker expresses a strong positive meaning by using two negative words or a negative word with a word that means the opposite of the meaning he intends. A few examples of negative words are "no," "not," "none," and "never." The opposite of "good" is "bad." Someone could say that something is "not bad" to mean that it is extremely good.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Some languages do not use litotes. People who speak those languages might not understand that a statement using litotes actually strengthens the positive meaning. Instead, they might think that it weakens or even cancels the positive meaning.

Examples from the Bible

Be sure of this—the wicked person will not go unpunished ... (Proverbs 11:21 ULB)

• By using litotes, the writer emphasized that wicked people will be punished.

Not one word has failed out of all Yahweh's good promises that he made with Moses his servant. (1 Kings 8:56)

• By using litotes, the writer emphasized that Yahweh did everything that he had promised Moses.

Luke wrote about the night when Peter was in prison and an angel came and helped him escape, even though there were soldiers guarding him.

Now when it became day, there was no small disturbance among the soldiers, over what had happened to Peter. (Acts 12:18 ULB)

• By using litotes, Luke emphasized that there was a great disturbance amon the soldiers. They were very anxious and agitated because Peter had escaped.

Translation Strategies

If the litotes would be understood correctly in your language, consider using it. If not, consider this strategy.

1. If the meaning with the negative would not be clear, give the positive meaning in a strong way.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If the meaning with the negative would not be clear, give the positive meaning in a strong way.

• Now when it became day, there was no small disturbance among the soldiers over what had happened to Peter. (Acts 12:18 ULB)
  • Now when it became day, there was a great disturbance among the soldiers over what had happened to Peter.
• Be sure of this—wicked people will not go unpunished ... (Proverbs 11:21 ULB)
  • Be sure of this—wicked people will certainly be punished ...
• Not one word has failed out of all Yahweh's good promises that he made with Moses his servant. (2 Kings 8:56)
  • Every word of all Yahweh's good promises that he made with Moses his servant has been fulfilled.

Merism

Description

Merism is a figure of speech in which a person refers to something by speaking of two extreme parts of it. By referring to the extreme parts, the speaker intends to include those two parts and everything in between them.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Some languages do not use merism. The readers of those languages may think that the phrase only applies to the items mentioned. They may not realize that it refers to those two things and everything in between.

Examples from the Bible

He will bless those who honor him, both young and old. (Psalm 115:13)

• The underlined phrase above is merism because it speaks of old people and young people and everyone in between. It means "everyone."

From the rising of the sun to its setting, Yahweh's name should be praised. (Psalm 113:3 ULB)

• This underlined phrase is a merism because it speaks of the east and the west and everywhere in between. It means "everywhere."

Translation Strategies

If the merism would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other options:

1. Identify what the merism refers to and include the parts.
2. Identify what the merism refers to without mentioning the parts.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Identify what the merism refers to and include the parts.

• He will bless those who honor him, both young and old. (Psalm 115:13 ULB)
  • He will bless all those who honor him, regardless of whether they are young or old.

1. Identify what the merism refers to without mentioning the parts.

• From the rising of the sun to its setting, Yahweh's name should be praised. (Psalm 113:3 ULB)
  • In all places, people should praise Yahweh's name.

Metaphor

Description

A metaphor is a figure of speech in which one concept (an "image") stands for another (the "topic"), and in which there is at least one point of comparison between the two. In other words, in metaphor, someone speaks of one thing as if it were a different thing because there is an important way that those two things are alike.

Kinds of Metaphors

There are two basic kinds of metaphors: "dead" metaphors and "live" metaphors. They each present a different kind of translation problem.

Dead Metaphors

A dead metaphor is a metaphor that has been used so much in the language that its speakers no longer regard it as one concept standing for another. Dead metaphors are extremely common. Examples in English are "table leg," "family tree," "leaf" meaning a page in a book, and "crane" meaning a large machine for lifting heavy loads. English speakers simply think of these words as having more than one meaning. Examples in Biblical Hebrew are "hand" to mean "power," "face" to mean "presence," and speaking of emotions or moral qualities as if they were "clothing."

To learn how to deal with dead metaphors, see https://read.bibletranslationtools.org/u/WA-Catalog/en_tm/jit.html#figs-metaphordead.

Live Metaphors

These are metaphors that people recognize as one concept standing for another concept, or one thing for another thing. They make people think about how the one thing is like the other thing, because in most ways the two things are very different. People also easily recognize these metaphors as giving strength and unusual qualities to the message. For this reason, people pay attention to these metaphors.

Live metaphors are the metaphors that need special care to translate correctly. To do so, we need to understand the parts of a metaphor and how they work together to produce meaning. See https://read.bibletranslationtools.org/u/WA-Catalog/en_tm/jit.html#figs-metaphorparts.

The rest of this topic deals with live metaphors.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• People may not recognize that something is a metaphor. In other words, they may mistake a metaphor for a literal statement, and thus misunderstand it.
• People may not be familiar with the thing that is used as an image, and so not be able to understand the metaphor.
• If the topic is not stated, people may not know what the topic is.
• People may not know the points of comparison that the speaker wants them to understand. If they fail to think of these points of comparison, they will not understand the metaphor.
• People may think that they understand the metaphor, but they do not. This can happen when they apply points of comparison from their own culture, rather than from the biblical culture.

Translation principles

• Make the meaning of a metaphor as clear to the target audience as it was to the original audience.
• Do not make the meaning of a metaphor more clear to the target audience than you think it was to the original audience.

Examples from the Bible

Sometimes the speaker makes the topic clear by using a sentence with the verb "be." Isaiah spoke of God's people being clay and God being their potter, someone who makes pots out of clay.

Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the clay. You are our potter; and we all are the work of your hand. Be not too angry, Yahweh, nor always call to mind against us our sins. Please look at us all, your people. (Isaiah 64:8, 9 ULB)

• The topics are "we" and "you," and the images are "clay" and "potter." The intended point of comparison is that a potter values what he has made out of clay, and God loves the people whom he has made to be his own. Isaiah reminds God of this as a basis for asking God not to be too angry with them.

Sometimes the speaker does not make the topic clear. The audience has to understand it from other things the speaker says. When Jesus referred to Saul kicking a goad, he was showing that Saul's persecuting Jesus was a like an animal kicking against a goad.

Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you to kick a goad. (Acts 26:14 ULB)

• A goad is a pointed stick that a person pokes his cattle with to make them move in a certain direction. Sometimes cattle resist their master and kick the sharp stick and hurt themselves. Instead of following Jesus, Saul was persecuting people who followed Jesus. He was resisting Jesus.

Sometimes the original audience did not understand the metaphor. Jesus used a metaphor with the word "yeast", but his disciples did not realize it. They thought he was talking about bread.

Jesus said to them, "Take heed and beware of the yeast of the Pharisees and Sadducees." The disciples reasoned among themselves and said, "It is because we took no bread." (Matthew 16:6-7 ULB)

• However, "yeast" was the image in Jesus' metaphor, and the topic was the teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Jesus wanted his disciples to beware of the false teaching of the Pharisees and Sadducees. Since the disciples did not understand what Jesus meant, it would not be good to state clearly here what Jesus meant.

Translation Strategies

If people would understand the metaphor in the same way that the original readers would have understood it, go ahead and use it. Be sure to test the translation to make sure that people do understand it in the right way.

If people do not or would not understand it, here are some other strategies.

1. If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding "like" or "as." See Simile.
2. If the target audience would not know the image, see Translate Unknowns for ideas on how to translate that image.
3. If the target audience would not use that image for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.
4. If the target audience would not know what the topic is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the topic was.)
5. If the target audience would not know the intended point of comparison between the topic and the image, then state it clearly.
6. If none of these strategies is satisfactory, then simply state the idea plainly without using a metaphor.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If the target audience does not realize that it is a metaphor, then change the metaphor to a simile. Some languages do this by adding "like" or "as."

• Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the clay. You are our potter; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULB)
  • Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are like clay. You are like a potter; and we all are the work of your hand.

1. If the target audience would not know the image, see Translate Unknowns for ideas on how to translate that image.

• ... Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you to kick a goad. (Acts 26:14 ULB)
  • ... Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you to kick against a pointed prodding stick.

1. If the target audience would not use that image for that meaning, use an image from your own culture instead. Be sure that it is an image that could have been possible in Bible times.

• Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the clay. You are our potter; and we all are the work of your hand. (Isaiah 64:8 ULB)
  • Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the wood. You are our carver; and we all are the work of your hand.
  • Yet, Yahweh, you are our father; we are the string. You are the weaver; and we all are the work of your hand.

1. If the target audience would not know what the topic is, then state the topic clearly. (However, do not do this if the original audience did not know what the topic was.)

• Yahweh lives; may my rock be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted. (Psalm 18:46 ULB)
  • Yahweh lives; He is my rock. May he be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted.

1. If the target audience would not know the intended point of comparison between the topic and the image, then state it clearly.

• Yahweh lives; may my rock be praised. May the God of my salvation be exalted. (Psalm 18:46 ULB)
  • Yahweh lives; may he be praised because he protects me like the rock under which I can hide from my enemies. May the God of my salvation be exalted.
• ... Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? It is hard for you to kick a goad. (Acts 26:14 ULB)
  • ... Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me? You fight against me and hurt yourself like an ox that kicks against its owner's goad.

1. If none of these strategies are satisfactory, then simply state the idea plainly without using a metaphor.

• ... I will make you fishers of men. (Mark 1:17 ULB)
  • ... I will make you people who gather men.
  • ... Now you gather fish. I will make you gather people.

To learn more about specific metaphors, see Biblical Imagery - Common Patterns.

Metonymy

Description

Metonymy is a figure of speech in which a thing or idea is called not by its own name, but by the name of something closely associated with it. A metonym is a word or phrase used as a substitute for something it is associated with.

Metonymy can be used

• to shorten the way of referring to something
• to make an abstract idea more meaningful by referring to it with the name of a physical object associated with it

Reasons this is a translation issue

The Bible uses metonymy very often. Speakers of some languages are not used to metonymy and they may not recognize it when they read it in the Bible. If they do not recognize the metonymy, they will not understand the passage or, worse yet, they will get a wrong understanding of the passage. Whenever a metonym is used, people need to be able to understand what it represents.

Examples from the Bible

... and the blood of Jesus his Son cleanses us from all sin. (1 John 1:7 ULB)

• In the verse above, the blood represents Jesus's death. Because of his death, people who believe in him are cleansed from all sin.

He took the cup in the same way after supper, saying, "This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you." (Luke 22:20 ULB)

• The cup represents the wine that was in the cup. The wine was a symbol of Christ's blood, by which he confirmed the new covenant.

The Lord God will give him the throne of his ancestor David. (Luke 1:32 ULB)

• A throne represents the authority of a king. "Throne" is a metonym for "kingly authority," "kingship" or "reign." This means that God would make him become the king that would follow King David.

Immediately his mouth was opened ... (Luke 1:64 ULB)

• The mouth here represents the ability to speak. The phrase "his mouth opened" means that he was able to talk again.

Who warned you to flee from the wrath that is coming? (Luke 3:7 ULB)

• The word "wrath" or "anger" is a metonym for "punishment." God was extremely angry with the people, and as a result, he would punish them.

Translation Strategies

If people would easily understand the metonym, consider using it. Otherwise, here are some options.

1. Use the metonym along with the name of the thing it represents.
2. Use only the name of the thing the metonym represents.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use the metonym along with the name of the thing it represents.

• He took the cup in the same way after supper, saying, "This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you. (Luke 22:20 ULB)
  • He took the cup in the same way after supper, saying, "The wine in this cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is poured out for you.

1. Use the name of the thing the metonym represents.

• The Lord God will give him the throne of his father, David. (Luke 1:32 ULB)
  • The Lord God will give him the kingly authority of his father, David.
  • The Lord God will make him king like his ancestor, King David.
• Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? (Luke 3:7 ULB)
  • Who warned you to flee from God's coming punishment?

To learn about some common metonymies, see Biblical Imagery - Common Metonymies.

Parallelism

Description

In parallelism two phrases or clauses that are similar in structure or idea are used together. There are different kinds of parallelism. Some of them are the following:

1. The second clause or phrase means the same as the first. This is also called synonymous parallelism.
2. The second clarifies or strengthens the meaning of the first.
3. The second completes what is said in the first.
4. The second says something that contrasts with the first, but adds to the same idea.

Parallelism is most commonly found in Old Testament poetry, such as in the books of Psalms and Proverbs. It also occurs in Greek in the New Testament, both in the four gospels and in the apostles' letters.

Synonymous parallelism (the kind in which the two phrases mean the same thing) in the poetry of the original languages has several effects:

• It shows that something is very important by saying it more than once and in more than one way.
• It helps the hearer to think more deeply about the idea by saying it in different ways.
• It makes the expression of ideas more beautiful and above the ordinary way of speaking.

Note: We use the term "synonymous parallelism" for long phrases or clauses that have the same meaning. We use the term Doublet for words or very short phrases that mean basically the same thing and are used together.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Speakers of some languages do not use synonymous parallelism. If there are two phrases or sentences, they expect them to have different meanings. Consequently they do not understand that the repetition of ideas serves to emphasize the idea.

Examples from the Bible

Sometimes the second phrase or clause means the same as the first.

Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes.(Proverbs 5:21 ULB)

• The phrase "all the paths he takes" is a metaphor for "all he does," so both clauses say that God see everything a person does.

For Yahweh has a lawsuit with his people, and he will fight in court against Israel. (Micah 6:2 ULB)

• This parallelism describes a serious disagreement that Yahweh had with his people, Israel.

Sometimes the second phrase or clause clarifies or strengthens the meaning of the first.

The eyes of Yahweh are everywhere, keeping watch over the evil and the good. (Proverbs 15:3 ULB)

• The second line tells more specifically what Yahweh watches.

Sometimes the second phrase or clause completes what is said in the first.

I lift up my voice to Yahweh, and he answers me from his holy hill. (Psalm 3:4 ULB)

• The second line tells what Yahweh does in response to what the person does in the first clause.

Sometimes the second phrase or clause says something that contrasts with the first, but adds to the same idea.

For Yahweh approves of the way of the righteous, but the way of the wicked will perish. (Psalm 1:6 ULB)

• This contrasts what happens to righteous people with what happens to wicked people.

A gentle answer turns away wrath, but a harsh word stirs up anger. (Proverbs 15:1 ULB)

• This contrasts what happens when someone gives a gentle answer with what happens when someone says something harsh.

Translation Strategies

For most kinds of parallelism, it is good to translate both of the clauses or phrases. For synonymous parallelism, it is good to translate both clauses if people in your language understand that the purpose of saying something twice is to strengthen a single idea. But if your language does not use parallelism in this way, then consider using one of the following translation strategies.

1. Combine the ideas of both clauses into one.
2. If it appears that the clauses are used together to show that what they say is really true, you could include words that emphasize the truth such as "truly" or "certainly."
3. If it appears that the clauses are used together to intensify an idea in them, you could use words like "very," "completely" or "all."

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Combine the ideas of both clauses into one.

• Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes. (Proverbs 5:21 ULB)
  • Yahweh pays attention to everything a person does.
• For Yahweh has a lawsuit with his people, and he will fight in court against Israel. (Micah 6:2 ULB)
  • For Yahweh has a lawsuit with his people, Israel.

1. If it appears that the clauses are used together to show that what they say is really true, you could include words that emphasize the truth such as "truly" or "certainly."

• Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes. (Proverbs 5:21 ULB)
  • Yahweh truly sees everything a person does.

1. If it appears that the clauses are used together to intensify an idea in them, you could use words like "very," "completely" or "all."

• you have deceived me and told me lies. (Judges 16:13 ULB)
  • All you have done is lie to me.
• Yahweh sees everything a person does and watches all the paths he takes. (Proverbs 5:21 ULB)
  • Yahweh sees absolutely everything that a person does.

Parts of a Metaphor

Description

A metaphor has three parts.

1. Topic - The thing someone speaks of is called the topic.
2. Image - The thing he calls it is the image.
3. Point of Comparison - The way or ways in which the author claims that the topic and image are similar are their points of comparison.

In the metaphor below, the speaker describes the woman he loves as a red rose. The woman (his "love") is the topic, and "red rose" is the image. Beauty and delicacy are the points of comparison that the speaker sees as similarities between both the topic and the image.

• My love is a red, red rose.

Often, as in the metaphor above, the speaker explicitly states the topic and the image, but he does not state the points of comparison. The speaker leaves it to the hearer to think of those points of comparison. Because the hearers must think of these ideas themselves, the speaker's message has a more powerful effect on the hearers.

Also in the Bible, normally the topic and the image are stated clearly, but not the points of comparison. The writer leaves it to the audience to think of and understand the points of comparison that are implied.

Jesus said to them, "I am the bread of life; he who comes to me will not be hungry, and he who believes in me will never be thirsty." (John 6:35 ULB)

In this metaphor, Jesus called himself the bread of life. The topic is "I," and the image is "bread." Bread is a food that people ate all the time. The point of comparison between bread and Jesus is that people need both to live. Just as people need to eat food in order to have physical life, people need to trust in Jesus in order to have spiritual life.

Purposes of Metaphor

• One purpose of metaphor is to teach people about something that they do not know (the topic) by showing that it is like something that they already do know (the image).
• Another purpose is to emphasize that something has a particular quality or to show that it has that quality in an extreme way.
• Another purpose is to lead people to feel the same way about the topic as they would feel about the image.

Personification

Description

Personification is a figure of speech in which someone speaks of something as if it could do things that animals or people can do. People often do this because it makes it easier to talk about things that we cannot see, such as wisdom or sin. People also do this because it is sometimes easier to talk about people's relationships with non-human things, such as wealth, as if they were like relationships between people. (See examples from the Bible below.)

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Some languages do not use personification.
• Some languages use personification only in certain situations.

Examples from the Bible

Does not Wisdom call out? Does not Understanding raise her voice? (Proverbs 8:1 ULB)

• The author of Proverbs wrote of wisdom and understanding as if they are a woman who calls out to teach people. This means that they are not something hidden, but something obvious that people should pay attention to.

...if you do not do what is right, sin crouches at the door and desires to control you ... (Genesis 4:7 ULB)

• God spoke of sin as a wild animal waiting for the chance to attack. This shows how dangerous sin is.

You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULB)

• Jesus spoke of wealth as if it were a master whom people might serve. Loving money and basing one's decisions on it is like serving it as a slave would serve his master.

Translation Strategies

If the personification would be understood clearly, consider using it. If it would not be understood, here are some other ways for translating it.

1. Use words such as "like" or "as" to show that the sentences is not to be understood literally.
2. Add words or phrases to make it clear.
3. Find a way to translate it without the personification.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use words such as "like" or "as" to show that the sentence is not to be understood literally.

• ... sin crouches at the door and desires to control you. (Genesis 4:7 ULB)
  • ... it is as if sin crouches at the door and desires to control you.

1. Add words or phrases that make the image more clear.

• ... sin crouches at the door and desires to control you. (Genesis 4:7 ULB)
  • ... sin is like a wild animal crouching at the door, desiring to control you.
  • ... sin is crouching at the door in order to attack you, and it desires to control you.

1. Add words or phrases to to show how something is like a person or animal.

• ... sin crouches at the door and desires to control you. (Genesis 4:7 ULB)
  • ... sin is dangerous, like an animal crouching at the door and desiring to control you.

1. Find a way to translate it without the personification. (Genesis 4:7 ULB)

• ... sin crouches at the door and desires to control you.
  • You are in danger of sinning and not being able to stop sinning.
• You cannot serve God and wealth. (Matthew 6:24 ULB)
  • You cannot be devoted to both God and wealth.
  • You cannot serve God if you want most to have wealth.

Note: We have broadened our definition of "personification" to include "zoomorphism" (speaking of other things as if they had animal characteristics) and "anthropomorphism" (speaking of non-human things as if they had human characteristics.)

Predictive Past

Description

The predictive past is a figure of speech that uses the past tense to refer to things that will happen in the future. This is sometimes done in prophecy to show that the event will certainly happen. It is also called the prophetic perfect.

Reasons this is a translation issue:

Readers who are not aware of the past tense being used in prophecy to refer to future events may find it confusing.

Examples from the Bible

When God firmly decided that he would do something or that something would happen, he sometimes spoke of it as if it had already happened. The past tense verbs are underlined in the examples below.

Therefore my people have gone into captivity for lack of understanding; their leaders go hungry, and their masses have nothing to drink. (Isaiah 5:13 ULB)

When prophets wrote about things that God said would happen, they sometimes wrote about them as if they had already happened.

For to us a child has been born, to us a son has been given; and the rule will be on his shoulder. (Isaiah 9:6 ULB)

And about these people also Enoch, the seventh in line from Adam, foretold, saying, "Look, the Lord came with tens of thousands of his holy ones, (Jude 1:14 ULB)

Translation Strategies

If the past tense would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other options.

1. Use the future tense to refer to future events.
2. If it refers to something in the immediate future, use a form that would show that.
3. Some languages may use the present tense to show that something will happen very soon.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use the future tense to refer to future events.

• For to us a child has been born, to us a son has been given ... (Isaiah 9:6a ULB)
  • For to us a child will be born, to us a son will be given ...

1. If it refers to something that would happen very soon, use a form that shows that.

• Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I have handed over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers." (Joshua 6:2 ULB)
  • Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I am about to hand over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers."

1. Some languages may use the present tense to show that something will happen very soon.

• Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I have handed over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers." (Joshua 6:2 ULB)
  • Yahweh said to Joshua, "See, I am handing over to you Jericho, its king, and its trained soldiers."

Rhetorical Question

Description

A rhetorical question is a question that a speaker uses for some purpose other than getting information. Some uses of rhetorical questions are to express strong emotions, to rebuke or scold someone, to introduce a topic to talk about it, or to teach something by reminding people of something they know and encouraging them to apply it to something new.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Some languages do not use rhetorical questions; for them a question is always a request for information.
• Some languages use rhetorical questions, but for purposes that are more limited or different than in the Bible.
• Because of these differences between languages, some readers might misunderstand the purpose of a rhetorical question in the Bible.

Examples from the Bible

Sometimes rhetorical questions are used to express strong emotions.

Why did I not die when I came out from the womb? (Job 3:11 ULB)

• Job used the question above to show how sad he was that he had not died as soon as he was born. He wished that he had not lived.

And why has it happened to me that the mother of my Lord should come to me? (Luke 1:43 ULB)

• Elizabeth used the question above to show how surprised and happy she was that the mother of her Lord came to her.

Sometimes rhetorical questions are used to rebuke or scold someone.

Those who stood by said, "Is this how you insult God's high priest?" (Acts 23:4 ULB)

• The people who asked Paul this question were accusing him of insulting the high priest. They were not asking him how he insulted God’s high priest.

Do you not still rule the kingdom of Israel? (1 Kings 21:7 ULB)

• Jezebel used the question above to remind King Ahab that he still ruled the kingdom of Israel. The rhetorical question made her point more strongly than if she had merely stated it, because it forced Ahab to admit the point himself. She did this in order to rebuke him for being unwilling to take over a poor man's property. She was implying that since he was the king of Israel, he had the power to take the man's property.

Sometimes rhetorical questions are used to introduce a topic.

What is the kingdom of God like, and what can I compare it to? It is like a mustard seed that a man took and threw into his garden ... (Luke 13:18-19 ULB)

• Jesus used the question above to introduce what he was going to talk about. He was going to compare the kingdom of God to something.

Sometimes rhetorical questions are used to teach something.

Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her sash? Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number! (Jeremiah 2:32 ULB)

• God used the question above to remind his people of something they already knew: a young woman would never forget her jewelry and a bride would never forget her sash. He then rebuked his people for forgetting him, who is so much greater than those things.

Or which one of you, if his son asks for a loaf of bread, will give him a stone? (Matthew 7:9 ULB)

• Jesus used the question above to remind the people of something they already knew: a good father would never give his son something bad to eat. By introducing this point, Jesus could go on to teach them about God with his next rhetorical question:

Therefore, if you who are evil know how to give good gifts to your children, how much more will your Father in heaven give good things to those who ask him? (Matthew 7:11 ULB)

• Jesus used this question to teach the people in an emphatic way that God gives good things to those who ask him.

Translation Strategies

In order to translate a rhetorical question accurately, first be sure that the question you are translating truly is a rhetorical question and is not an information question. Ask yourself, "Does the person asking the question already know the answer to the question?" If so, it is a rhetorical question. Or, if no one answers the question, is the one who asked it bothered that he did not get an answer? If not, it is a rhetorical question.

When you are sure that the question is rhetorical, then be sure that you know what the purpose of the rhetorical question is. Is it to encourage or rebuke or shame the hearer? Is it to bring up a new topic? Is it to do something else?

When you know the purpose of the rhetorical question, then think of the most natural way to express that purpose in the target language. It might be as a question, or a statement, or an exclamation.

If using the rhetorical question would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider doing so. If not, here are other options:

1. Add the answer after the question.
2. Change the rhetorical question to a statement or exclamation.
3. Change the rhetorical question to a statement, and then follow it with a short question.
4. Change the form of the question so that it communicates in your language what the orignal speaker communicated in his.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Add the answer after the question.

• Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her sash? Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number! (Jeremiah 2:32 ULB)
  • Will a virgin forget her jewelry, or a bride her sash? Of course not! Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number!
• Or what man among you is there who, if his son asks him for a loaf of bread, will give him a stone? (Matthew 7:9 ULB)
  • Or what man among you is there who, if his son asks him for a loaf of bread, will give him a stone? None of you would do that!

1. Change the rhetorical question to a statement or exclamation.

• What is the kingdom of God like, and what can I compare it to? It is like a mustard seed... (Luke 13:18-19 ULB)
  • This is what the kingdom of God is like. It is like a mustard seed..."
• Is this how you insult God's high priest? (Acts 23:4 ULB)
  • You have insulted God's high priest!
• And why has it happened to me that the mother of my Lord should come to me? (Luke 1:43 ULB)
  • How wonderful it is that the mother of my Lord has come to me!

1. Change the rhetorical question to a statement, and then follow it with a short question.

• Do you not still rule the kingdom of Israel? (1 Kings 21:7 ULB)
  • You still rule the kingdom of Israel, do you not?

1. Change the form of the question so that it communicates in your language what the orignal speaker communicated in his.

• Or what man among you is there who, if his son asks him for a loaf of bread, will give him a stone? (Matthew 7:9 ULB)
  • If your son asks you for a loaf of bread, would you give him a stone?
• Will a virgin forget her jewelry, a bride her sash? Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number! (Jeremiah 2:32 ULB)
  • What virgin would forget her jewelry, and what bride would forget her sash? Yet my people have forgotten me for days without number!

Simile

Description

A simile is a comparison of two things that are not normally thought to be similar. It focuses on a particular trait the two items have in common, and it includes the words "like," "as," "than," "as if," or "as though."

Purposes of Simile

• A simile can teach about something that is unknown by showing how it is similar to something that is known.
• A simile can emphasize a particular trait, sometimes in a way that gets people's attention.
• Similes help form a picture in the mind or help the reader experience what he is reading about more fully.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• People may not know how the two items are similar.
• People may not be familiar with the item that something is compared to.

Examples from the Bible

When he saw the crowds, he had compassion for them, because they were troubled and discouraged. They were like sheep without a shepherd. (Matthew 9:36)

• Jesus compared the crowds of people to sheep without a shepherd. Sheep grow frightened when they do not have a good shepherd to lead them in safe places. The crowds were like that because they did not have good religious leaders.

See, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves, so be as wise as serpents and harmless as doves. (Matthew 10:16 ULB)

• When Jesus was sending his disciples out to teach people about God, he compared his disciples to sheep and their enemies to wolves. Wolves attack sheep. People who did not want to hear the truth about God would want to harm the disciples.
• The disciples would need to be careful, aware of danger, but also not harming anyone. Jesus compared how they should live with how serpents and doves live.

For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword. (Hebrews 4:12 ULB)

• The author of Hebrews compared God's word to a two-edged sword. A two-edged sword is a weapon that can easily cut through a person's flesh. God's word is very effective in showing what is in a person's heart and thoughts.

They are your people whom you have chosen, whom you rescued out of Egypt as if from the middle of a furnace where iron is forged. (1 Kings 8:51 ULB)

• In his prayer, King Solomon compared Egypt to an extremely hot furnace because the people of Egypt had treated God's people there so brutally.

Translation Strategies

If people would understand the correct meaning of a simile, consider using it. If they would not, here are some strategies you can use:

1. If people do not know how the two items are alike, tell how they are alike. However, do not do this if the meaning was not clear to the original audience.
2. If people are not familiar with the item that something is compared to, use an item from your own culture. Be sure that it is one that could have been used in the cultures of the Bible.
3. Simply describe the item without comparing it to another.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If people do not know how the two items are alike, tell how they are alike. However, do not do this if the meaning was not clear to the original audience.

• The example below compares the danger that Jesus's disciples would be in with the danger that sheep are in when they are surrounded by wolves.
• See, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves (Matthew 10:16 ULB) -
  • See, I send you out among wicked people and you will be in danger from them as sheep are in danger when they are among wolves.
• For the word of God is living and active and sharper than any two-edged sword. (Hebrews 4:12 ULB)
  • For the word of God is living and active and more powerful than a very sharp two-edged sword

1. If people are not familiar with the item that something is compared to, use an item from your own culture. Be sure that it is one that could have been used in the cultures of the Bible.

• In the example below Jesus compares people to sheep and wolves. If people do not know what sheep and wolves are, or that wolves kill and eat sheep, you could use some other animal that kills another.
• See, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves, (Matthew 10:16 ULB)
  • See, I send you out as chickens in the midst of wild dogs,
• How often did I long to gather your children together, just as a hen gathers her chickens under her wings, but you were not willing! (Matthew 23:37 ULB)
  • How often I wanted to gather your children together, as a mother closely watches over her infants, but you refused!
• If you have faith even as small as a grain of mustard seed ... (Matthew 17:20)
  • If you have faith even as small as a tiny seed ...

1. Simply describe the item without comparing it to another.

• See, I send you out as sheep in the midst of wolves, (Matthew 10:16 ULB)
  • See, I send you out and people will want to harm you.
• How often did I long to gather your children together, just as a hen gathers her chickens under her wings, but you were not willing! (Matthew 23:37 ULB)
  • How often I wanted to protect you, but you refused!

Synecdoche

Description

Synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a speaker uses a part of something to refer to the whole or uses the whole to refer to a part.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Some readers may understand the words literally.
• Some readers may realize that they are not to understand the words literally, but they may not know what the meaning is.

Examples from the Bible

My soul praises the Lord. (Luke 1:46 ULB)

• Mary was was very happy about what the Lord was doing, so she said "my soul," which means the inner, emotional part of herself, to refer to her whole self.

I looked on all the deeds that my hands had accomplished (Ecclesiastes 2:11 ULB)

• "My hands" is a synecdoche for the whole person, because clearly the arms and the rest of the body and the mind were also involved in the person's accomplishments.

The Pharisees said to him, "Look, why are they doing something that is not lawful on the Sabbath day?" (Mark 2:24 ULB)

• The Pharisees who were standing there did not all say the same words at the same time. Instead, it is more likely that one man representing the group said those words.

Translation Strategies

If the synecdoche would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here is another option:

1. State specifically what the synecdoche refers to.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. State specifically what the synecdoche refers to.

• My soul praises the Lord. (Luke 1:46 ULB)
  • I praise the Lord.
• ... the Pharisees said to him (Mark 2:24 ULB)
  • ... a representative of the Pharisees said to him ...
• ... I looked on all the deeds that my hands had accomplished ... (Ecclesiastes 2:11 ULB)
  • I looked on all the deeds that I had accomplished

Grammar Topics

Grammar has two main parts: words and structure. Structure involves how we put words together to form phrase, clauses, and sentences.

Parts of Speech - All words in a language belong to a category called a part of speech. (see Parts of Speech)

Sentences - When we speak, we organize our thoughts in sentences. A sentence usually has a complete thought about an event or a situation or state of being. (see Sentence Structure)

• Sentences can be statements, questions, commands, or exclamations. (see Exclamations)
• Sentences can have more than one clause. (see Sentence Structure)
• Some languages have both active and passive sentences. (see Active or Passive)

Possession - This shows that there is a relationship between two nouns. In English it is marked with "of" as in "the love of God," or with "'s" as in "God's love," or with a possessive pronoun as in "his love." (see Possession)

Quotations - A quotation is a report of what someone else has said.

• Quotations normally have two parts: Information about who said something and what the person said. (see Quotations and Quote Margins)
• Quotations can be either direct quotes or indirect quotes. (see Direct and Indirect Quotations)
• Quotes can have quotes within them. (see Quotes within Quotes)

Abstract Nouns

Description

Abstract nouns are nouns that refer to attitudes, qualities, events, situations, or even to relationships among these ideas. These are things that cannot be seen or touched in a physical sense, such as joy, peace, goodness, health, weight, creation, injury, unity, friendship, health, and reason.

Using abstract nouns allows people to express thoughts about ideas in fewer words than if they did not have those nouns. It is a way of giving names to actions or qualities so that people can talk about them as though they were things. It is like a short-cut in language. For example, in languages that use abstract nouns, people can say, "I believe in the forgiveness of sin." But if the language did not have the two abstract nouns "forgiveness" and "sin," then they would have to make a longer sentence to express the same meaning. They would have to say, for example, "I believe that God is willing to forgive people after they have sinned," using verb phrases instead of nouns for those ideas.

Reasons this is a translation issue

The Bible that you translate from may use abstract nouns to express certain ideas. Your language might not use abstract nouns for some of those ideas; instead, it might use phrases to express those ideas. Those phrases will use other kinds of words such as adjectives, verbs, or adverbs to express the meaning of the abstract noun.

Examples from the Bible

From childhood you have known the sacred writings. (2 Timothy 3:15 ULB)

• The abstract noun "childhood" refers to when someone is a child.

Now godliness with contentment is great gain. (1 Timothy 6:6 ULB)

• The abstract nouns "godliness" and "contentment" refer to being godly and content. The abstract noun "gain" refers to something that benefits or helps someone.

Today salvation has come to this house, because he too is a son of Abraham. (Luke 19:9 ULB)

• The abstract noun "salvation" here refers to being saved.

The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider slowness to be. (2 Peter 3:9 ULB)

• The abstract noun "slowness" refers how slowly something is done.

He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the purposes of the heart. (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULB)

• The abstract noun "purposes" refers to the things that people want to do and the reasons they want to do them.

Translation Strategies

If an abstract noun would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here is another option:

1. Reword the sentence with a phrase that expresses the meaning of the abstract noun. Instead of a noun, the new phrase will use a verb, an adverb, or an adjective to express the idea of the abstract noun..

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Reword the sentence with a phrase that expresses the meaning of the abstract noun. Instead of a noun, the new phrase will use a verb, an adverb, or an adjective to express the idea of the abstract noun.

• From childhood you have known the sacred writings. (2 Timothy 3:15 ULB)
  • Ever since you were a child you have known the sacred writings.
• Now godliness with contentment is great gain. (1 Timothy 6:6 ULB)
  • Now being godly and content is very beneficial.
  • Now we benefit greatly when we are godly and content.
  • Now we benefit greatly when we honor and obey God and when we are happy with what we have.
• Today salvation has come to this house .... (Luke 19:9 ULB)
  • Today the people in this house have been saved ...
  • Today God has saved the people in this house ...
• The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider slowness to be. (2 Peter 3:9 ULB)
  • The Lord does not move slowly concerning his promises, as some consider moving slowly to be.
• He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the purposes of the heart. (1 Corinthians 4:5 ULB)
  • He will bring to light the hidden things of darkness and reveal the things that people want to do and the reasons they want to do them.

Active or Passive

Description

Some languages have both active and passive forms sentences. In active sentences, the subject does the action. In passive sentences, the action is done to the subject. Passive sentences do not always tell who did the action. Here are some examples with their subjects underlined:

• ACTIVE: My father built the house in 2010.
• PASSIVE: The house was built by my father in 2010.
• PASSIVE: The house was built in 2010. (This does not tell who did the action.)

Reasons this is a translation issue

All languages have active forms. Some languages have passive forms, and some do not.  The passive form is not used for the same purposes in all of the languages that have it.

Purposes for the passive

• The speaker is talking about the person or thing the action was done to, not about the person who did the action.
• The speaker does not want to tell who did the action.
• The speaker does not know who did the action.

Translation principles Regarding the Passive

• Translators whose language does not use passive forms will need to find another way to express the idea.
• Translators whose language has passive forms will need to understand why the passive is used in a particular sentence in the Bible and decide whether or not to use a passive form for that purpose in his translation of the sentence.

Examples from the Bible

In the examples below, the passive verb forms are underlined.

Then their shooters shot at your soldiers from off the wall, and some of the king's servants were killed, and your servant Uriah the Hittite was killed too. (2 Samuel 11:24 ULB)

• This means that the enemy's shooters shot and killed some of the king's servants, including Uriah. The point is what happened to the king's servants and Uriah, not who shot them. The purpose of the passive form here is to keep the focus on the king's servants and Uriah.

In the morning when the men of the town got up, the altar of Baal was broken down.(Judges 6:28 ULB)

• The men of the town saw what had happened to the altar of Baal, but they did not know who broke it down. The purpose of the passive form here is to communicate this event from the perspective of the men of the town.

It would be better for him if a millstone were put around his neck and he were thrown into the sea. (Luke 17:2 ULB)

• This describes a situation in which a person ends up in the sea with a millstone around his neck. The purpose of the passive form here is to keep the focus on what happens to this person. Who does these things to the person is not important.

Translation Strategies

If you decide that it is better to translate without a passive form, here are some strategies you might consider.

1. Use the same verb in an active sentence and tell who or what did the action. If you do this, try to keep the focus on the person receiving the action.
2. Use the same verb in an active sentence, and do not tell  who or what did the action. Instead, use a generic expression like "they" or  "people" or  "someone."
3. Use a different verb.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use the same verb in an active sentence and tell who did the action. If you do this, try to keep the focus on the person receiving the action.

• A loaf of bread was given him every day from the street of the bakers. (Jeremiah 37:21 ULB)
  • The king's servants gave Jeremiah a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.

1. Use the same verb in an active sentence, and do not tell  who did the action. Instead, use a generic expression like "they" or  "people" or  "someone."

• It would be better for him if a millstone were put around his neck and he were thrown into the sea. (Luke 17:2 ULB)
  • It would be better for him if they were to put a millstone around his neck and throw him into the sea.
  • It would be better for him if someone were to put a heavy stone around his neck and throw him into the sea.

1. Use a different verb in an active sentence.

• A loaf of bread was given him every day from the street of the bakers. (Jeremiah 37:21 ULB)
  • He received a loaf of bread every day from the street of the bakers.

Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding

Description

In some languages, phrases that modify a noun can be used with the noun for two different purposes. They can either distinguish the noun from other similar items, or they can give more information about the noun. That information could be new to the reader, or a reminder about something the reader might already know. Other languages use modifying phrases with a noun only for distinguishing the noun from other similar things. When people who speak these languages hear a modifying phrase with a noun, they assume that its function is to distinguish one item from another similar item.

Some languages use a comma to mark the difference between making a distinction between similar items and gving more information about an item. Without the comma, the sentence below communicates that it is making a distinction:

• Mary gave some of the food to her sister who was very thankful.
  • If her sister was usually thankful, the phrase "who was thankful" could distinguish this sister of Mary's from another sister who was not usually thankful.

With the comma, the sentence is giving more information:

• Mary gave some of the food to her sister, who was very thankful.
  • This same phrase can be used give us more information about Mary's sister. It tells us about how Mary's sister responded when Mary gave her the food. In this case it does not distinguish one sister from another sister.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Many source languages of the Bible use phrases that modify a noun both for distinguishing the noun from another similar item and also for giving more information about the noun. The translator must be careful to understand which meaning the author intended in each case.
• Some languages use phrases that modify a noun only for distinguishing the noun from another similar item. When translating a phrase that is used for giving more information, people who speak these languages will need to separate the phrase from the noun. Otherwise, people who read it or hear it will think that the phrase is meant to distinguish the noun from other similar items.

Examples from the Bible

Words and phrases that are used to distinguish one item from other possible items usually do not cause a problem in translation.

A foolish son is a grief to his father, and bitterness to the woman who bore him. (Proverbs 17:25 ULB)

• The phrase "who bore him" distinguishes which woman the son is bitterness to. He is not bitterness to all women, but to his mother.

The curtain is to separate the holy place from the most holy place. (Exodus 26:33 ULB)

• The words "holy" and "most holy" distinguish two different places from each other and from any other place.

Words and phrases that are used to give added information or a reminder about an item are a translation issue for languages that do not use these.

How can Sarah, who is ninety years old, bear a son? (Genesis 17:17 ULB)

• The phrase "who is ninety years old" is the reason that Abraham did not think that Sarah could bear a son. He was not distinguishing one woman named Sarah from another woman named Sarah who was a different age, and he was not telling anyone something new about her age. He simply did not think that a woman who was that old could bear a child.

I will call on Yahweh, who is worthy to be praised. (2 Samuel 22:4 ULB)

• The phrase "who is worthy to be praised" is the speaker's reason for calling on Yahweh.

I hate those who serve worthless idols (Psalm 31:6 ULB)

• By saying "worthless idols," David was commenting about all idols and giving his reason for hating those who serve them. He was not distinguishing worthless idols from valuable idols.

Your righteous judgments are good. (Psalm 119:39 ULB)

• The word "righteous" simply reminds us that God's judgments are righteous. It does not distinguish his righteous judgements from his unrighteous judgements, because all of his judgments are righteous.

Translation Strategies

If people would understand the purpose of a phrase with a noun, then consider keeping the phrase and the noun together. For languages that use words or phrases with a noun only to distinguish one item from another, here are some strategies for translating phrases that are used to inform or remind.

1. Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.
2. Use one of your language's ways for expressing that this is additional information. It may be by adding a small word, or by changing the way the voice sounds. Sometimes changes in the voice can be shown with punctuation marks, such as parentheses or commas.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Put the information in another part of the sentence and add words that show its purpose.

• How can Sarah, who is ninety years old, bear a son? (Genesis 17:17-18 ULB)
  • Can Sarah bear a son even when she is ninety years old?
• I will call on Yahweh, who is worthy to be praised. (2 Samuel 22:4 ULB)
  • I will call on Yahweh, because he is worthy to be praised.
• I hate those who serve worthless idols (Psalm 31:6 ULB)
  • Because idols are worthless, I hate those who serve them.
• Your righteous judgments are good. (Psalm 119:39 ULB)
  • Your judgments are good because they are righteous.

1. Use one of your language's ways for expressing that this is additional information.

• You are my Son, whom I love. I am pleased with you. (Luke 3:22 ULB)
  • You are my Son. I love you and I am pleased with you.

Double Negatives

Description

Negative words are words that have in them the meaning "not." Examples are "no," "not," "none," "no one," "nothing," "nowhere," "never," "nor," "neither," "unless," "except," and "without." Also, some words have prefixes or suffixes that mean "not" such as the underlined parts of these words: "unhappy," "impossible," and "useless."

A double negative occurs when a clause has two words that each express the meaning of "not."

Reasons this is a translation issue

Double negatives mean very different things in different languages.

• In some languages, such as Spanish, a double negative is used to create a negative sentence. The following Spanish sentence No ví a nadie is literally, "I did not see no one." It has both the word 'no' next to the verb and 'nadie,' which means "no one." The two negatives are seen as in agreement with each other, and the sentence means, "I did not see anyone."
• In some languages, a double negative can be used simply to correct a misunderstanding that the listener might have about something that already includes a negative. So "He is not unintelligent" means simply that if the listener thinks that the man is unintelligent, then the listener is wrong. It does not indicate how intelligent the man is.
• In some languages a double negative can be used to create a weak positive sentence. So, "He is not unintelligent" would mean, "He is somewhat intelligent."
• In some languages, a double negative can be used to create a strong positive sentence. So, "He is not unintelligent" would mean, "He is very intelligent."

To translate sentences with double negatives accurately and clearly in your language, you need to know both what a double negative means in a particular sentence and how to express the same idea in your language.

Examples from the Bible

For we do not have a high priest who cannot feel sympathy for our weaknesses. (Hebrews 4:15 ULB)

• By using the double negative here, the writer showed that our high priest can feel sympathy for our weaknesses.

... I do not want you to be uninformed. (1 Corinthians 12:1 ULB)

• By using the double negative, Paul showed that he wanted the people to be informed.

All things were made through him, and without him there was not one thing made that has been made. (John 1:3 ULB)

• By using a double negative, John emphasized that the Son of God created everything.

We did this not because we have no authority, but we did this in order to be an example to you. (2 Thessalonians 3:9 ULB)

• People could think that the reason that Paul and those with him worked hard was that they did not have authority to expect the people to meet their needs. Paul denied that. They had authority, but they had other reasons for working so hard.

Translation Strategies

If double negatives are natural and are used to create a positive sentence in your language, consider using them. If not, here is another option.

1. Express the idea without either of the negatives.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Express the idea without either of the negatives.

• For we do not have a high priest who cannot feel sympathy for our weaknesses. (Hebrews 4:15 ULB)
  • For we have a high priest who can feel sympathy for our weaknesses.
• ... I do not want you to be uninformed. (1 Corinthians 12:1 ULB)
  • ... I want you to be informed.
• All things were made through him, and without him there was not one thing made that has been made. (John 1:3 ULB)
  • All things were made through him. He made absolutely everything that has been made.
• We did this not because we have no authority, but we did this in order to be an example to you. (2 Thessalonians 3:9 ULB)
  • Though we have authority, we did this in orer to be an example to you.

Ellipsis

Description

Ellipsis is the omission of words that would normally be needed to make a sentence complete, but they are understood either by convention or because they were already used in a previous phrase.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Readers who see incomplete sentences or phrases may not know what the missing information is if they do not use ellipsis in their language.

Examples from the Bible

In all of these examples, the missing words are understood because they were in the first phrase.

For Adam was formed first, then Eve. (1 Timothy 2:13 ULB)

• The underlined phrase above means, "then Eve was formed."

... his works were evil and his brother's righteous. (1 John 3:12 ULB)

• The underlined phrase above means, "his brother's works were righteous."

So the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous. (Psalm 1:5)

• The underlind phrase above means "sinners will not stand in the assembly of the righteous."

He makes Lebanon skip like a calf and Sirion like a young ox. (Psalm 29:6 ULB)

• The underlined phrase above means, "he makes Sirion skip like a young ox."

Then Saul said to his armor bearer, "Draw your sword and thrust me through with it. ..." But his armor bearer would not, for he was very afraid. (1 Samuel 31:4 ULB)

• The underlined phrase above means, "But his armor bearer would not draw his sword and thrust Saul through with it."

Translation Strategies

If ellipsis would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here is another option:

1. Add the missing words to the incomplete phrase or sentence.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Add the missing words to the incomplete phrase or sentence.

• ... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor sinners in the assembly of the righteous. (Psalm 1:5)
  • ... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, nor will sinners stand in the assembly of the righteous.
  • ... the wicked will not stand in the judgment, and sinners will not stand in the assembly of the righteous.
• He makes Lebanon skip like a calf and Sirion like a young ox. (Psalm 29:6)
  • He makes Lebanon skip like a calf, and he makes Sirion skip like a young ox.

Generic Noun Phrases

Description

Generic noun phrases refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things. This happens frequently in proverbs, because proverbs tell about things that are true about people in general.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Different languages have different ways of showing that noun phrases refer to something in general. Translators should refer to these general ideas in ways that are natural in their language.

Examples from the Bible

The righteous person is kept away from trouble and it comes upon the wicked instead. (Proverbs 11:8 ULB)

• The underlined phrases above do not refer to any specific people but to anyone who does what is right or anyone who is wicked.

People curse the man who refuses to sell them grain.... (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)

• This does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who refuses to sell grain.

Yahweh gives favor to a good man, but he condemns a man who makes evil plans. (Proverbs 12:2 ULB)

• The phrase "a good man" does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who is good. The phrase "a man who makes evil plans" does not refer to a particular man, but to any person who makes evil plans.

Translation Strategies

If your language can use the same wording as in the ULB to refer to people or things in general rather than to specific individuals or things, consider using the same wording. Here are some strategies you might use.

1. Use the word "the" in the noun phrase.
2. Use the word "a" in the noun phrase.
3. Use the word "any", as in "any person" or "anyone."
4. Use the plural form, as in "people."
5. Use any other way that is natural in your language.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use the word "the" in the noun phrase.

• Yahweh gives favor to a good man, but he condemns a man who makes evil plans. (Proverbs 12:2 ULB)
  • Yahweh gives favor to the good man, but he condemns the man who makes evil plans. (Proverbs 12:2)

1. Use the word "a" in the noun phrase.

• People curse the man who refuses to sell them grain ... (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
  • People curse a man who refuses to sell them grain ...

1. Use the word "any, as in "any person" or "anyone."

• People curse the man who refuses to sell them grain ... (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
  • People curse any man who refuses to sell them grain ...

1. Use the plural form, as in "people" (or in this sentence, "men").

• People curse the man who refuses to sell them grain ... (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
  • People curse men who refuse to sell them grain ...

1. Use any other way that is natural in your language.

• People curse the man who refuses to sell them grain ... (Proverbs 11:26 ULB)
  • People curse whoever refuses to sell them grain ...
  • People curse those who refuse to sell them grain ...

Go and Come

Description

Different languages have different ways of talking about motion. The biblical languages or your source language may use the words "go" and "come" or "take" and "bring" differently than your language uses them. For example, when saying that they are approaching a person who has called them, English speakers say "I'm coming," while Spanish speakers say "I'm going." You will need to translate these words in a way that your readers will understand which direction people are moving in.

Reasons this is a translation issue

If these words are not translated in a way that is natural in your language, your readers may be confused about which direction people are moving in.

Examples from the Bible

Yahweh said to Noah, "Come, you and all your household, into the ark ... (Genesis 7:1 ULB)

• In some languages, this would lead people to think that Yahweh was in the ark.

But you will be free from my oath if you come to my relatives and they will not give her to you. (Genesis 24:41 ULB)

• Abraham was speaking to his servant. Abraham's relatives lived far away from where he and his servant were standing, and he wanted his servant to move toward them, not toward Abraham.

When you have come to the land that Yahweh your God gives you, and when you take possession of it and begin to live in it ... (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULB)

• Moses was speaking to the people in the wilderness. Moses and the people had not yet arrived at the land that God was giving them. In some languages, it would make more sense to say, "When you have gone into the land..."

... they brought him up to the temple in Jerusalem to present him to the Lord. (Luke 1:22 ULB)

• In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Joseph and Mary took or carried Jesus up to the temple.

Behold, a man named Jairus ... came and fell down at Jesus's feet, and he begged him to come to his house ... (Luke 8:41 ULB)

• The man was not at his house when he spoke to Jesus. He wanted Jesus to go with him to his house.

Some time after this his wife Elizabeth became pregnant, but she did not go out in public for five months. (Luke 1:24 UDB)

• In some languages, it might make more sense to say that Elizabeth did not come out in public.

Translation Strategies

If the word used in the ULB would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are other strategies.

1. Use the word "go," "come," "take," or "bring" that would be natural in your language.
2. Use another word that expresses the right meaning.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use the word "go," "come," "take," or "bring" that would be natural in your language.

• But you will be free from my oath if you come to my relatives and they will not give her to you. (Genesis 24:41 ULB)
  • But you will be free from my oath if you go to my relatives and they will not give her to you.

1. Use another word that expresses the right meaning.

• When you have come to the land that Yahweh your God gives you ... (Deuteronomy 17:14 ULB)
  • When you have arrived at the land that Yahweh your God gives you ...
• Yahweh said to Noah, "Come, you and all your household, into the ark ... (Genesis 7:1 ULB)
  • Yahweh said to Noah, "Enter, you and all your household, into the ark ...

Nominal Adjectives

Description

In some languages an adjective can be used to refer to a class of things that the adjective describes. When it does, it acts like a noun. For example, the word "strong" is an adjective. Here are two sentences that show that "strong" is an adjective.

In the sentence below, the adjective "strong" comes before the word "man" and describes the man.

• The strong man carried the heavy load.

In the sentence below, the adjective "strong" comes after the verb "be" and describes "he."

• He exercises a lot because he wants to be strong.

Here is a sentence that shows that "strong" can also function as a noun. It refers to strong people in general.

• The strong can often help those who are weak.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Many times in the Bible adjectives are used as nouns to describe a group of people.
• Some languages do not use adjectives in this way.
• Readers of these languages may think that the text is talking about one particular person when it is really talking about the group of people whom the adjective describes.

Examples from the Bible

The scepter of wickedness must not rule in the land of the righteous. (Psalm 125:3 ULB)

• "The righteous" refers to people who are righteous, not one particular righteous person.

Blessed are the meek (Matthew 5:5 ULB)

• "The meek" refers to people who are meek, not one particular meek person.

... the rich must not give more than the half shekel, and the poor must not give less. (Exodus 30:15 ULB)

• "The rich" refers to people who are meek, and "the poor" refers to people who are poor.

Translation Strategies

If your language uses adjectives as nouns to refer to a class of people, consider using the adjectives in this way. If it would sound strange, or if the meaning would be unclear or wrong, here is another option:

1. Use the adjective with a plural form of the noun that the adjective describes.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use the adjective with a plural form of the noun that the adjective describes.

• The scepter of wickedness must not rule in the land of the righteous. (Psalm 125:3 ULB)
  • The scepter of wickedness must not rule in the land of righteous people.
• Blessed are the meek ... (Matthew 5:5 ULB)
  • Blessed are people who are meek ...

Order of Events

Description

In the Bible, events are not always told in the order in which they occurred. Sometimes the author wanted to discuss something that happened at an earlier time than the event that he just talked about. This can be confusing to the reader.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Readers might think that the events happened in the order that they are told. It is important to help them understand the correct order of events.

Examples from the Bible

... Herod ... locked John up in prison. Now it came about, when all the people were baptized, Jesus also was baptized.... (Luke 3:19-21 ULB)

• Jesus was baptized by John. The verses above could sound like John baptized Jesus after Herod locked John up, but John baptized Jesus before Herod locked him up.

Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets. ... But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout." (Joshua 6:8-10 ULB)

• This could sound like Joshua gave the order not to shout after the army had already started their march, but he had given that order before they started marching.

Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2 ULB)

• This could sound like a person must first open the scroll and then break its seals, but the seals that lock the scroll must be broken before the scroll can be unrolled.

Translation Strategies

1. If your language uses phrases or time words to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using one of them.
2. If your language uses verb tense or aspect to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using that. (See: the section on Aspect on Verbs)
3. If your language prefers to tell events in the order that they occurred, consider reordering the events so they they are in that order. This may require putting two or more verses together (like 5-6). (See: Verse Bridges)

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If your language uses phrases or time words to show that an event happened before the one just mentioned, consider using one of them.

• ... Herod ... locked John up in prison. Now it came about, when all the people were baptized, that Jesus also was baptized.... (Luke 3:29-21 ULB)
  • ... Herod ... locked John up in prison. Now before John was put in prison, when all the people were baptized, Jesus also was baptized....
• Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2 ULB)
  • Who is worthy to open the scroll after breaking its seals?

1. If your language uses verb tense or aspect to show that an event happened before one that was already mentioned, consider using that.

• ⁸Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets ... ¹⁰But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout." (Joshua 6:8-10 ULB)
  • ⁸Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets...¹⁰But Joshua had commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout.

1. If your language prefers to tell events in the order that they occur, consider reordering the events. This may require putting two or more verses together (like 5-6).

• ⁸Just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams' horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets ... ¹⁰But Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then you must shout." (Joshua 6:8-10 ULB)
  • ^8-10Joshua commanded the people, saying, "Do not shout. No sound must leave your mouths until the day I tell you to shout. Only then must you shout." Then just as Joshua had said to the people, the seven priests carried the seven trumpets of rams horns before Yahweh. As they advanced, they gave a blast on the trumpets....
• Who is worthy to open the scroll and break its seals? (Revelation 5:2 ULB)
  • Who is worthy to break the seals and open the scroll?

Parts of Speech

Description

Parts of speech are categories of words. The different categories of words have different functions in a sentence. All languages have parts of speech, and all words in a language belong to a part of speech. Most languages have these basic parts of speech, with some variations, and some languages have more categories than this. This is not an exhaustive list of parts of speech, but it covers the basic categories.

VERBS are words that express either an action (such as come, go, eat) or a state-of-being (such as is, are, was). More detailed information can be found on Verbs.

NOUNS are words that represent a person, place, thing, or idea. Common nouns are generic, that is, they do not refer to any specific entity (man, city, country). Names, or proper nouns, refer to a specific entity (Peter, Jerusalem, Egypt). (For more information see) How to Translate Names.

PRONOUNS take the place of nouns and include such words as he, she, it, you, they, and we. More detailed pages on pronouns can be found on Pronouns.

CONJUNCTIONS are words that join phrases or sentences. Examples include and, or, but, for, yet, nor. Some conjunctions are used in pairs: both/and; either/or; neither/nor; not only/but also. More information about these can be found on Connecting Words

PREPOSITIONS are words that begin phrases which connect a noun or verb with more detail about that noun or verb. For example, "The girl ran to her father." Here the phrase with the preposition "to" tells the direction of the girl's running (the action) in relation to her father. Another example is, "The crowd around Jesus grew in numbers." The phrase with the preposition around tells the location of the crowd in relation to Jesus. Some examples of prepositions are to, from, in, out, on, off, with, without, above, below, before, after, behind, in front of, among, through, beyond, among.

ARTICLES are words that are used with nouns to show whether or not the speaker is referring to something that his listener should be able to identify. In English these words are: "a", an, the. The words a and an mean the same thing. If a speaker says "a dog, he does not expect his listener to know which dog he is talking about; this might be the first time he says anything about a dog. If a speaker says the dog, he is usually referring to a specific dog, and he expects his listener to know which dog he is talking about. English speakers also use the to show that they are talking about something in general. For example, they can say "The elephant is a large animal" and refer to elephants in general, not a specific elephant. More information about this can be found on Generic Noun Phrases.

ADJECTIVES are words that describe nouns and express such things as quantity, size, color, and age. Some examples are: many, big, blue, old, smart, tired. Sometimes people use adjectives to give some information about something, and sometimes people use them to distinguish one item from another. For example, in my elderly father the adjective elderly simply tells something about my father. But in my eldest sister the word eldest distinguishes that sister from any other older sisters I might have. More information about this can be found on Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding.

ADVERBS are words that describe verbs or adjectives and give details such as how, when, where, why, and to what extent. Many English adverbs end in ly. Some examples of adverbs: slowly, later, far, intentionally, very.

Possession

Description

In common English, "possession" refers to having something, or to something that a person has. In English that grammatical relationship is shown with of, or an apostrophe and the letter s, or a possessive pronoun.

• the house of my grandfather
• my grandfather's house
• his house

Possession is used in Hebrew, Greek, and English for a variety of situations. Here are a few common situations that it is used for.

• Ownership - Someone owns something.
  • My clothes - The clothes that I own
• Social relationship - Someone has some kind of social relationship with another.
  • my mother - the woman who gave birth to me, or the woman who cared for me
  • my teacher - the person who teaches me
• Contents - Something has something in it.
  • a bag of potatoes - a bag that has potatoes in it, or a bag that is full of potatoes
• Part and whole: One thing is part of another.
  • my head - the head that is part of my body
  • the roof of a house - the roof that is part of a house

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Translators need to understand the relationship between two ideas represented by the two nouns when one possesses the other.
• Some languages do not use possession for all of the situations that your source text Bible might use it for.

Examples from the Bible

Possession with objects or people

Ownership

... the younger son ... wasted his money with wildly extravagant living. (Luke 15:13)

• The phrase "his money" means that the son owned the money.

Social relationship

Then the disciples of John came to him. (Matthew 9:14 ULB)

• The "the disciples of John" were people who learned from John.

Material

On their heads were something like crowns of gold (Revelation 9:7)

• "Crowns of gold" are crowns that are made of gold.

Contents

Whoever gives you a cup of water to drink ... will not lose his reward. (Mark 9:41 ULB)

• A cup of water has water in it.

Part of a whole

But Uriah slept at the door of the king's palace (2 Samuel 11:9 ULB)

• The door of a palace is a part of the palace.

Part of a group

To each one of us has been given a gift (Ephesians 4:7 ULB)

• In the example above, "us" refers a group, and "each one" refers to the individual members of the group.

Possession with Events

Sometimes one or both of the nouns is an abstract noun that refers to an event or action. In the examples below, the abstract nouns are in bold print. These are just some of the relationships that are possible between two nouns when one of them refers to an event.

Subject - Sometimes the word after "of" tells who does the action named by the first noun.

The baptism of John, was it from heaven or from men? Answer me." (Mark 11:30)

• The underlined phrase is about John baptizing people.

Who will separate us from the love of Christ? (Romans 3:35)

• The underlined phrase is about Christ loving us.

Object - Sometimes the word after "of" tells who or what something happens to.

For the love of money is a root of all kinds of evil. (1 Timothy 6:10 ULB)

• The underlined phrase is about people loving money.

Instrument - Sometimes the word after "of" tells the instrument that is used to do something.

then be afraid of the sword, because wrath brings the punishment of the sword (Job 19:29 ULB)

• The underlined phrase is about God punishing people by sending enemies to attack them with swords.

Representation - Sometimes the word after "of" tells what the idea before "of" represents.

As John came, he was baptizing in the wilderness and was preaching a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins. (Mark 1:4 ULB)

• This is about baptism representing repentance. John was teaching people that they should be baptised to show that they were repenting of their sins.

Strategies for learning what the relationship is between the two nouns

1. Read the surrounding verses to see if they help you to understand the relationship between the two nouns.
2. Read the verse in the UDB. Sometimes it shows the relationship clearly.
3. See what the notes say about it.

Translation Strategies

If possession would be a natural way to show a particular relationship between two nouns, consider using it. If it would be strange or hard to understand, consider these.

1. Use an adjective to show that one describes the other.
2. Use a verb to show how the two are related.
3. If one of the nouns refers to an event, translate it as a verb.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use an adjective to show that one describes the other.

• On their heads were something like crowns of gold (Revelation 9:7)
  • On their heads were gold crowns

1. Use a verb to show how the two are related.

• ... Whoever gives you a cup of water to drink ... will not lose his reward. (Mark 9:41 ULB)
  • ... Whoever gives you a cup that has water in it to drink ... will not lose his reward.
• Wealth is worthless on the day of wrath (Proverbs 11:4 ULB)
  • Wealth is worthless on the day when God shows his wrath.
  • Wealth is worthless on the day when God punishes people because of his wrath.

1. If one of the nouns refers to an event, translate it as a verb.

• Notice that I am not speaking to your children, who have not known or seen the punishment of Yahweh your God, (Deuteronomy 11:2 ULB)
  • Notice that I am not speaking to your children who have not known or seen how Yahweh your God punished the people of Egypt.
• You will only observe and see the punishment of the wicked. (Psalm 91:8 ULB)
  • You will only observe and see how Yahweh punishes the wicked.
• ... you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. (Acts 2:38 ULB)
  • ... you will receive the Holy Spirit, whom God will give to you.

Verbs

Description

Verbs are words that refer to an action or event or that is used in describing or identifying things.

Examples The verbs in the examples below are underlined.

• John ran. ("Run" is an action.)
• John ate a banana. ("Eat" is an action.)
• John saw Mark. ("See" is an event.)
• John died. ("Die" is an event.)
• John is tall. (The phrase "is tall" describes John. The word "is" is a verb that links "John" with "tall.")
• John looks handsome. (The phrase "is handsome" describes John. The word "looks" here is a verb that links "John" with "handsome.")
• John is my brother. (The phrase "is my brother" identifies John.)

People or Things Associated with a Verb

A verb usually says something about someone or something. All of the example sentences above say something about John. "John" is the subject of those sentences. In English the subject usually comes before the verb.

Sometimes there is another person or thing associated with the verb. In the examples below, the underlined word is the verb, and the phrase in bold print is the object. In English the object usually comes after the verb.

• He ate lunch.
• He sang a song.
• He read a book.
• He saw the book.

Some verbs never have an object.

• The sun rose at six o'clock.
• John slept well.
• John fell yesterday.

For many verbs in English, it is alright to leave out the object when the object is not important in the sentence.

• He never eats at night.
• He sings all the time.
• He reads well.
• He cannot see.

In some languages, a verb that needs an object must always take one, even if the object is not very important. People who speak those languages might say the sentences above like this.

• He never eats food at night.
• He sings songs all the time.
• He reads words well.
• He cannot see anything.

Subject and Object Marking on Verbs

In some languages, the verb may be a little bit different depending on the persons or things associated with it. For example, English speakers sometimes put "s" at the end of the verb when the subject is just one person. In other languages marking on the verb may show whether the subject is "I," "you," or "he"; singular, dual, or plural; male or female, or human or non-human.

• They eat bananas every day. (The subject "they" is more than one person.)
• John eats bananas every day. (The subject "John" is one person.)

Time and Tense

When we tell about an event, we usually tell whether it is in the past, the present, or the future. Sometimes we do this with words like "yesterday," "now," or "tomorrow."

In some languages the verb may be a little bit different depending on the time associated with it. This kind of marking on a verb is called tense. English speakers sometimes put "ed" at the end of the verb when the event happened in the past.

• Sometimes Mary cooks meat.
• Yesterday Mary cooked meat. (She did this in the past.)

In some languages speakers might add a word to tell something about the time. English speakers use the word "will" when the verb refers to something in the future.

• Tomorrow Mary will cook meat.

Aspect

When we tell about an event, sometimes we want to show how the event progressed over a period of time, or how the event relates to another event. This is aspect. English speakers sometimes use the verbs "is" or "has" and add "s," "ing," or "ed" to the end of the verb in order to show how the event relates to another event or to the present time.

• Mary cooks meat every day. (This tell about something Mary often does.)
• Mary is cooking the meat. (This tells about something Mary is in the process of doing right now.)
• Mary cooked the meat, and John came home. (This simply tells about things that Mary and John did.)
• While Mary was cooking the meat, John came home. (This tells about something Mary was in the process of doing when John came home)
• Mary has cooked the meat, and she wants us to come eat it. (This tells about something Mary did that is still relevant now.)
• Mary had cooked the meat by the time Mark came home. (This tells about something that Mary completed in the past before something else happened.)

When Masculine Words Include Women

Description

In some languages a word that normally refers to men can also be used in a more general way to refer to both men and women. Also in some languages, the masculine pronouns "he" and "him" and "his" can be used in a more general way for any person if it is not important whether the person is a man or a woman.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• When reading a sentence in the Bible, the translator needs to be able to determine whether the use of a word that normally refers to men refers only to men or to both men and women.
• In some cultures words like "man," "brother," and "son" can only be used to refer to men. If those words are used in a translation in a more general way, people will think that what is being said does not apply to women.
• In some cultures, the masculine pronouns "he" and "him" can only refer to men. If a masculine pronoun is used, people will think that what is said does not apply to women.

Translation Principles

When a statement applies to both men and women, translate it in such a way that people will be able to understand that it applies to both.

Examples from the Bible

We want you to know, brothers, about the grace of God that has been given to the churches of Macedonia. (2 Corinthians 8:1 ULB)

• This verse is addressing the believers in Corinth, not only men, but men and women.

For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are sons of God. (Proverbs 10:1 ULB)

• When Paul wrote "sons of God," he was not speaking only of men, but of men and women.

Then said Jesus to his disciples, "If anyone wants to follow me, he must deny himself, take up his cross, and follow me." (Matthew 16:24-26 ULB)

• Jesus was not speaking only of men, but of men and women.

Caution: Sometimes masculine words are used specifically to refer to men. Do not use words that would lead people to think that they include women. The underlined words below are specifically about men.

Moses said, 'If a man dies, having no children, his brother must marry his wife and have a child for his brother.' (Mark 22:24 ULB)

Translation Strategies

If people would understand that that masculine words like "man," "brother," and "he" can include women, then consider using them. Otherwise, here are some ways for translating those words when they include women.

1. Use a noun that can be used for both men and women.
2. Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.
3. Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use nouns that can be used for both men and women.

• The wise man dies just like the fool dies. (Ecclesiastes 2:16 ULB)
  • The wise person dies just like the fool dies.
  • Wise people die just like fools die.
• For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are sons of God. (Proverbs 10:1 ULB)
  • For as many as are led by the Spirit of God, these are children of God.

1. Use a word that refers to men and a word that refers to women.

• For we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers, about the troubles we had in Asia. (2 Corinthians 1:8)
  • For we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers and sisters, about the troubles we had in Asia. (2 Corinthians 1:8)

1. Use pronouns that can be used for both men and women.

• If anyone wants to follow me, he must deny himself, take up his cross, and follow me." (Matthew 16:24 ULB)
  • If people want to follow me, they must deny themselves, take up their cross, and follow me.

Word Order

Description

Most languages have a normal way of ordering the parts of a sentence. It is not the same in all languages. Translators need to know what the normal word order is in their language.

The Main Parts of a Sentence

Most sentences have three basic important parts: subject, object, and verb. Subjects and objects are usually nouns (i.e., a person, place, thing, or idea) or pronouns. Verbs show action or a state of being.

Subject

The subject is usually what the sentence is about. It usually performs some action or is being described. A subject may be active; it does something, such as sing, or work, or teach.

• Peter sings the song well.

A subject may have something done to it.

• Peter was fed good food.

A subject can be described or it can be in a state, such as being happy, sad, or angry.

• He is tall.
• The boy is happy.

Object

The object is often the thing that the subject does something to.

• Peter hit the ball.
• Peter read a book.
• Peter sang the song well.
• Peter ate good food.

Verb

The verb shows an action or a state of being.

• Peter sings the song well.
• Peter is singing.
• Peter is tall.

Preferred Word Order

All languages have a preferred word order. The examples below show the order of the subject, object, and verb in "Peter hit the ball" for some languages. In some languages, such as English, the order is Subject-Verb-Object.

• Peter hit the ball.

In some languages the order is Subject-Object-Verb.

• Peter the ball hit.

In some languages the order is Verb-Subject-Object.

• Hit Peter the ball.

Changes in Word Order

Word order can change if

• the sentence is a question or command
• the sentence describes a state of being (He is happy. He is tall.)
• the sentence expresses a condition, such as with the the word "if"
• the sentence has a location
• the sentence has a time element
• the sentence is in a poem

Word order can also change if

• there is some kind of emphasis on a certain part of the sentence
• the sentence is really about something other than the subject

Translation principles

• Know which word order is preferred in your language.
• Use your language's preferred word order unless there is some reason in your language to change it.
• Translate the sentence so that the meaning is accurate and clear and so that it sounds natural.

Pronouns

Description

Pronouns are words that people use in place of a noun to refer to someone or something. Some examples are I, you, he, it, this, that, himself, someone. The most common type of pronoun is personal.

Personal Pronouns

Personal pronouns refer to people or things and show if the speaker is referring to himself, the person he is speaking to, or someone or something else. The following are kinds of information that personal pronouns may give. Other types of pronouns may give some of this information, as well.

Person

• First Person - The speaker and possibly others (I, we)
  • Exclusive and Inclusive 'We'
• Second Person - The person or people that the speaker is talking to and possibly others (you)
  • Forms of 'You'
• Third Person - Someone or something other than the speaker and those he is talking to (he, she, it, they)

Number

• Singular - one (I, you, he, she, it)
• Plural - more than one (we, you, they)
  • Singular Pronouns that Refer to Groups
• Dual - two (Some languages have pronouns for specifically two people or two things.)

Gender

• Masculine - he
• Feminine - she
• Neuter - it

Relationship to other words in the sentence

• Subject of the verb: I, you, he, she, it, we, they
• Object of the verb or preposition: me, you, him, her, it, us, them
• Possessor with a noun: my, your, his, her, its, our, their
• Possessor without a noun: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs

Other Types of pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns refer to another noun or pronoun in the same sentence: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

• John saw himself in the mirror. - The word "himself" refers to John.

Interrogative Pronouns are used to make a question that needs more than just a yes or no for an answer: who, whom, whose, what, where, when, why, how

• Who built the house?

Relative Pronouns mark a relative clause. They tell more about a noun in the main part of the sentence: that, which, who, whom, where, when

• I saw the house that John built. The clause "that John built" tells which house I saw.
• I saw the man who built the house. The clause "who built the house" tells which man I saw.

Demonstrative Pronouns are used to draw attention to someone or something and to show distance from the speaker or something else: this, these, that, those.

• Have you seen this here?
• Who is that over there?

Indefinite pronouns are used when no particular noun is being referred to: any, anyone, someone, anything, something, some. Sometimes a personal pronoun is used in a generic way to do this: you, they, he or it.

• He does not want to talk to anyone.
• Someone fixed it, but I do not know who.
• They say that you should not wake a sleeping dog.

In the last example, "they" and "you" just refer to people in general.

First, Second, or Third Person

Description

Normally a speaker refers to himself as "I" and the person he is speaking to as "you." Sometimes in the Bible a speaker referred to himself or to the person he was speaking to with a phrase other than "I" or "you." We use the categories "first person," "second person," and "third person" when discussing the pronouns and other forms that speakers normally use when they refer to themselves, to those they are speaking to, and to others.

• First person - This is how a speaker normally refers to himself. English uses the pronouns "I" and "we." (Also: me, my, mine; us, our, ours)
• Second person - This is how a speaker normally refers to the person or people he is speaking to. English uses the pronoun "you." (Also: your, yours)
• Third person - This is how a speaker refers to someone else. English uses the pronouns "he," "she," "it" and "they." (Also: him, his, her, hers, its; them, their, theirs) Noun phrases like "the man" or "the woman" are also third person.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Sometimes in the Bible a speaker used the third person to refer to himself or to the people he was speaking to. Readers might think that the speaker was referring to someone else. They might not understand that he meant "I" or "you."

Examples from the Bible

Sometimes people used the third person instead of "I" or "me" to refer to themselves.

But David said to Saul, "Your servant used to keep his father's sheep." (1 Samuel 17:34 ULB)

• David referred to himself in the third person as "your servant" and "his." He was calling himself Saul's servant in order to show his humility before Saul.

Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, "... Do you have an arm like God's? Can you thunder with a voice like him?"" (Job 40:6, 9 ULB)

• God referred to himself in the third person with the words "God's" and "him." He did this to emphasize that he is God, and he is powerful.

Sometimes people used the third person instead of "you" or "your" to refer to the person or people they were speaking to.

Abraham answered and said, "Look, I have undertaken to speak to my Lord, even though I am only dust and ashes! (Genesis 18:27 ULB)

• Abraham was speaking to the Lord, and referred to the Lord as "My Lord" rather than as "you." He did this to show his humility before God.

Let each of you look not only to his own interests, but also to the interests of others. (Philippians 2:4 ULB)

• After writing "each of you," Paul used the third person "his" instead of "your" to refer to the same people.

Translation Strategies

If using the third person to mean "I" or "you" would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, consider these strategies.

1. Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun "I" or "you."
2. Simply use the first person ("I") or second person ("you") instead of the third person.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use the third person phrase along with the pronoun "I" or "you."

• But David said to Saul, "Your servant used to keep his father's sheep." (1 Samuel 17:34)
  • But David said to Saul, "I, your servant, used to keep my father's sheep."

1. Simply use the first person ("I") or second person ("you") instead of the third person.

• Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, "... Do you have an arm like God's? Can you thunder with a voice like him? (Job 40:6, 9 ULB)
  • Then Yahweh answered Job out of a fierce storm and said, "... Do you have an arm like mine? Can you thunder with a voice like me?"
• Let each of you look not only to his own interests, but also to the interests of others. (Philippians 2:4 ULB)
  • Let each of you look not only to your own interests, but also to the interests of others.

Exclusive and Inclusive "We"

Description

Some languages have more than one form of "we:" an inclusive form that means "I and you" and an exclusive form that means "I and someone else but not you." The exclusive form excludes the person being spoken to. The inclusive form includes the person being spoken to and possibly others. This is also true for "us," "our," "ours," and "ourselves." Some languages have inclusive forms and exclusive forms for each of these.

See the pictures. The people on the right are the people that the speaker is talking to. The yellow highlight shows who the inclusive "we" and the exclusive "we" refer to.

Reasons this is a translation issue

The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. Like English, these languages do not have separate exclusive and inclusive forms for "we." Translators whose language has separate exclusive and inclusive forms of these words will need to understand what the speaker meant so that they can decide which form to use.

Examples from the Bible

Sometimes the word "we" or "us" includes the people being spoken to.

... the shepherds said one to each other, "Let us now go to Bethlehem and see this thing that has happened, which the Lord has made known to us." (Luke 2:15 ULB)

• The shepherds were speaking to one another. When they said "us," they were including the people they were speaking to - one another. So languages that have inclusive forms of "we" and "us" would use them in this verse.

Now one day he got into a boat with his disciples, and he said to them, "Let us go over to the other side of the lake." They set sail. (Luke 8:22 ULB)

• When Jesus said "us," he was referring to himself and the disciples he was speaking to.

Sometimes the word "we" or "us" excludes the people being spoken to.

... we have seen it, and we bear witness to it. We are announcing to you the eternal life.... (1 John 1:2 ULB)

• John was telling people who had not seen Jesus what he and the other apostles had seen. So languages that have an exclusive form of "we" would use it in this verse.

Sometimes it is not obvious whether or not the word "we" or "us" includes the people being spoken too.

But he said to them, "You give them something to eat." They said, "We have no more than five loaves of bread and two fish, unless we go and buy food for all these people." (Luke 9:12-13 ULB)

• Jesus told his disciples to give the crowd something to eat. When the disciples replied to Jesus, it is not clear whether or not they were including Jesus in the word "we." However, since Jesus told them to give food to the people, it is reasonable to infer that when the disciples said "we," they were referring only to themselves and not to Jesus.

Translation Strategies

There are no translation strategies for this topic.

Forms of 'You'

Singular, Dual, and Plural

Some languages have more than one word for "you" based on how many people the word "you" refers to. The singular form refers to one person, and the plural form refers to more than one person. Some languages also have a dual form which refers to two people, and some have other forms that refer to three or four people.

• Forms of 'You' - Singular
• Forms of 'You' - Dual/Plural

Sometimes in the Bible a speaker uses a singular form of "you" even though he is speaking to a crowd.

• Singular Pronouns that Refer to Groups

Formal and Informal

Some languages have more than one form of "you" based on the relationship between the speaker and the person he is talking to. People use the formal form of "you" when speaking to someone who is older, or has higher authority, or is someone they do not know very well. People use the informal form when speaking to someone who is not older, or does not have higher authority, or is a family member or close friend.

For help with translating these, we suggest you read:

• Forms of "You" - Formal or Informal

Forms of 'You' - Dual/Plural

Description

Some languages have a singular form of "you" for when the word "you" refers to just one person, and a plural form for when the word "you" refers to more than one person. Some languages also have a dual form of "you" for when the word "you" refers to only two people. Translators who speak one of these languages will always need to know what the speaker meant so they can choose the right word for "you" in their language. Other languages, such as English, have only one form, which people use regardless of how many people it refers to.

The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. These languages all have a singular form of "you" and a plural form of "you." When we read the Bible in those languages, the pronouns and verb forms show us whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one person. However, they do not show us whether it refers to only two people or more than two people. When the pronouns do not show us how many people the word "you" refers to, we need to look at the context to see how many people the speaker was speaking to.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Translators who speak a language that has distinct singular, dual, and plural forms of "you" will always need to know what the speaker meant so they can choose the right word for "you" in their language.
• Many languages also have different forms of the verb depending on whether the subject is singular or plural. So even if there is no pronoun meaning "you," translators of these languages will need to know if the speaker was referring to one person or more than one.

Often the context will make it clear whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one. If you look at the other pronouns in the sentence, they will help you know how many people the speaker was addressing.

Examples from the Bible

James and John, the sons of Zebedee, came up to him and said, "Teacher, we want you to do for us whatever we ask you." He said to them, "What do you want me to do for you?" (Mark 10:35-36 ULB)

• Jesus is asking the two, James and John, what they want him to do for them. If the target language has a dual form of "you," use that. If the target language does not have a dual form, then the plural form would be appropriate.

... Jesus sent out two of his disciples and said to them, "Go into the village opposite us. As soon as you enter it, you will find a colt that has never been ridden. Untie it and bring it to me. (Mark 11:1-2 ULB)

• The context makes it clear that Jesus is addressing two people. If the target language has a dual form of "you," use that, and if it has a dual form of verbs, use that as well. If the target language does not have a dual form, then the plural form would be appropriate.

James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ, to the twelve tribes of the Dispersion, greetings. Consider it all joy, my brothers, when you experience various troubles, knowing that the testing of your faith works endurance. (James 1:1-3 ULB)

• James wrote this letter to many people, so the word "you" refers to many people. If the target language has a plural form of "you," it would be best to use it here.

Jesus answered and said to him, "Are you a teacher of Israel, and yet you do not understand these things? Truly, truly, I say to you, we speak what we know, and we testify about what we have seen. Yet you do not accept our testimony. (John 3:10, 11 ULB)

• Jesus was speaking to one man, so the reader would expect that all the instances of "you" would be singular. However, in the last sentence, Jesus is referring to all of the Pharisees, so the word "you" in that sentence is plural.

Strategies for finding out how many people "you" refers to

1. Look at the notes to see if they tell whether "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
2. Look at the UDB to see if it says anything that would show you whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
3. If you have a Bible that is written in a language that distinguishes "you" singular from "you" plural, see which form of "you" that Bible has in that sentence.
4. Look at the context to see who the speaker was talking to and who responded.

Translation Strategies

1. If a speaker or writer uses a word for "you" to refer to two people, and if your language has a form of "you" that is specifically for two people, then use that form.
2. If a speaker uses a word for "you" to refer to two people, and if your language does not have a form that is specifically for two people, then use whatever form is appropriate when referring to two people. That may be a plural form or a form that does not indicate the number of people at all.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

Because English does not have dual or plural forms of "you," there are no examples of translation strategies applied.

Forms of 'You' - Singular

Description

Some languages have a singular form of "you" for when the word "you" refers to just one person, and a plural form for when the word "you" refers to more than one person. Translators who speak one of these languages will always need to know what the speaker meant so they can choose the right word for "you" in their language. Other languages, such as English, have only one form, which people use regardless of how many people it refers to.

The Bible was first written in the Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek languages. These languages all have both a singular form of "you" and a plural form of "you." When we read the Bible in those languages, the pronouns and verb forms show us whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one. When we read the Bible in a language that does not have different forms of "you", we need to look at the context to see how many people the speaker was speaking to.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Translators who speak a language that has distinct singular and plural forms of "you" will always need to know what the speaker meant so they can choose the right word for "you" in their language.
• Many languages also have different forms of the verb depending on whether the subject is singular or plural. So even if there is no pronoun meaning "you", translators of these languages will need to know if the speaker was referring to one person or more than one.

Often the context will make it clear whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one. If you look at the other pronouns in the sentence, they will help you know the number of people the speaker was speaking to. Sometimes Greek and Hebrew speakers used "you" singular even though they were speaking to a group of people. See Singular Pronouns that Refer to Groups

Examples from the Bible

Jesus answered and said to him, "Are you a teacher of Israel, and yet you do not understand these things? Truly, truly, I say to you, we speak what we know, and we testify about what we have seen. Yet you do not accept our testimony. (John 3:10, 11 ULB)

Jesus was speaking to one man, so the reader would expect that all the instances of "you" would be singular. However, in the last sentence, Jesus is referring to all of the Pharisees, so the word "you" in that sentence is plural.

The angel said to him, "Dress yourself and put on your sandals." Peter did so. The angel said to him, "Put on your outer garment and follow me." (Acts 12:8 ULB)

The context makes it clear that the angel was speaking to one person and that only one person did what the the angel commanded. So languages that have singular and plural forms of "you" would have the singular form here for "yourself" and "your." Also, if verbs have different forms for singular and plural subjects, the verbs "dress" and "put on" will need the form for "you" singular.

To Titus, a true son in our common faith. ... For this purpose I left you in Crete, that you might set in order things not yet complete and ordain elders in every city as I directed you. ... But you, speak what fits with faithful instruction. (Titus 1:4,5; 2:1 ULB)

Paul wrote this letter to one person, Titus. Most of the time the word "you" in this letter refers only to Titus.

Strategies for finding out how many people "you" refers to

1. Look at the notes to see if they tell whether "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
2. Look at the UDB to see if it says anything that would show you whether the word "you" refers to one person or more than one person.
3. If you have a Bible that is written in a language that distinguishes "you" singular from "you" plural, see which form of "you" that Bible has in that sentence.
4. Look at the context to see how many people the speaker was talking to and who responded.

Translation Strategies

1. If your language has singular and plural forms of "you", use the form that is appropriate for the number of people that the speaker or writer was addressing.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

Because English does not have singular and plural forms of "you," there are no examples of translation strategies applied.

Forms of "You" - Formal or Informal

Description

Some languages make a distinction between the formal form of "you" and the informal form of "you." This page is primarily for people whose language makes this distinction.

In some cultures people use the formal "you" when speaking to someone who is older or in authority, and they use the informal "you" when speaking to someone who is their own age or younger or who has less authority. In other cultures, people use the formal "you" when speaking to strangers or people they do not know well, and the informal "you" when speaking with family members and close friends.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• The Bible was written in Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek. These languages do not have formal and informal forms of "you."
• English and many other source languages do not have formal and informal forms of "you."
• Translators who use a source text in a language that does have formal and informal forms of "you" will need to understand how those forms are used in that language. The rules in that language may not be exactly the same as the rules in the translator's language.
• Translators will need to understand the relationship between two speakers in order to choose the appropriate form in their language.

Translation principles

• Understand the relationship between the speaker and the person or people he is speaking to.
  • Is one person in authority over the other?
  • Is one person older than the other?
  • Are the people family members, relatives, friends, strangers, or enemies?
• Understand the speaker's attitude toward the person he is speaking to.
• Choose the form in your language that is appropriate for that relationship and attitude.

Examples from the Bible

Yahweh God called to the man and said to him, "Where are you?" (Genesis 3:9 ULB)

God is in authority over the man, so languages that have formal and informal forms of "you" would probably use the informal form here.

So it seemed good to me also, because I have accurately investigated everything from the beginning, to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, so that you might know the certainty of the things you have been taught. (Luke 1:3-4 ULB)

Luke called Theophilus "most excellent." This shows us that Theophilus was probably a high official to whom Luke was showing great respect. Speakers of languages that have a formal form of "you" would probably use that form here.

Our Father in heaven, may your name be honored as holy. (Matthew 6:9 ULB)

This is part of a prayer that Jesus taught his disciples. Some cultures would use the formal "you" because God is in authority. Other cultures would use the informal "you" because God is our Father.

Translation Strategies

1. Choose the form of "you" in your language that is appropriate for the speaker's relationship with the person he is speaking to and for the speaker's attitude toward that person.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

Because English does not have formal and informal forms of "you," there are no examples of translation strategies applied.

Singular Pronouns that Refer to Groups

Description

The Bible was written in Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek. These languages have a singular form of "you" for when the word "you" refers to just one person, and a plural form for when the word "you" refers to more than one person. However sometimes speakers in the Bible used the singular form of "you" even though they were speaking to a group of people. This is not obvious when you read the Bible in English, because English does not have distinct forms for "you" singular and "you" plural. But you may see this if you read a Bible in a language that does have distinct forms.

Also, speakers and writers of the Old Testament often referred to groups of people with the singular pronoun "he," rather than with the plural pronoun "they."

Reasons this is a translation issue

• People who translate into a language that has singular and plural forms of "you" will need to know whether the speaker was speaking to one person or to more than one.
• In some languages it might be confusing if a speaker uses a singular pronoun when speaking to or about more than one person.

Examples from the Bible

¹Take heed that you do not do your acts of righteousness before people to be seen by them, or else you will have no reward from your Father who is in heaven. ²So when you give alms, do not sound a trumpet before yourself as the hypocrites do in the synagogues and in the streets, so that they may have the praise of people. Truly I say to you, they have received their reward. (Matthew 6:1, 2 ULB)

• Jesus said this to a crowd. He used "you" plural in verse 1, and "you" singular in the first sentence of verse 2. Then in the last sentence he used the plural again.

I am Yahweh your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery. You must have no other gods before me. (Exodus 20:1-3 ULB)

• God said this to all the people of Israel. He had taken them all out of Egypt and he wanted them all to obey him, but he used the singular form of you here when speaking to them.

This is what Yahweh says, "For three sins of Edom, even for four, I will not turn away punishment, because he pursued his brother with the sword and cast off all pity. His anger raged continually, and his wrath lasted forever." (Amos 1:11 ULB)

• Yahweh said these things about the people of Edom, not about only one person.

Translation Strategies

If the singular form of the pronoun would be natural when referring to a group of people, consider using it.

1. If the singular form of the pronoun would not be natural when referring to a group of people, or if the readers would be confused by it, use the plural form of the pronoun.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If the singular form of the pronoun would not be natural when referring to a group of people, or if the readers would be confused by it, use the plural form of the pronoun.
   • This is what Yahweh says, "For three sins of Edom, even for four, I will not turn away punishment, because he pursued his brother with the sword and cast off all pity. His anger raged continually, and his wrath lasted forever." (Amos 1:11 ULB)
     • This is what Yahweh says, "For three sins of Edom, even for four, I will not turn away punishment, because they pursued their brothers with the sword and cast off all pity. Their anger raged continually, and their wrath lasted forever."

Reflexive Pronouns

Description

All languages have ways of showing that the same person fills two different roles in a sentence. English does this by using Reflexive pronouns. These are pronouns that refer to someone or something that has already been mentioned in a sentence. In English the reflexive pronouns are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves. Other languages may have other ways to show this.

Uses of Reflexive Pronouns

• To show that the same person or things fills two different roles in a sentence
• To emphasize a person or thing in a sentence
• To show that a person or thing was alone or did something alone

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Languages have different ways of showing the things that reflexive pronouns in the ULB show.
• When translators read a reflexive pronoun in the ULB, they need to understand what that reflexive pronoun is used for.
• Translators need to know how to show those meanings in their own language.

Examples from the Bible

The reflexive pronoun sometimes shows that the same person or thing fills two different roles in a sentence. Often the reflexive pronoun is the object of the sentence, and it refers to the same person that the subject refers to. (See Sentence Structure)

Then they picked up stones to throw at him, but Jesus hid himself and went out of the temple. (John 8:59 ULB)

• "Jesus" is the subject of the verb "hid," and "himself" is the object of "hid." The word "himself" refers to Jesus.

If I should testify about myself, my testimony would not be true. (John 5:31 ULB)

• The word "I" is the subject of "testify," and "myself" is the object of "testify." The words "I" and "myself" both refer to Jesus.

Now the Passover of the Jews was near, and many went up to Jerusalem from the country before the Passover in order to purify themselves. (John 11:55 ULB)

• "Many" is the subject of "purify," and "themselves" is the object of "purify." The word "themselves" refers to the many people.

The reflexive pronoun sometimes emphasizes a person or thing in the sentence.

... Jesus himself was not baptizing, but his disciples were ... (John 4:2 ULB)

So they left the crowd, taking Jesus with them, since he was already in the boat. ... And a violent windstorm arose and the waves were breaking into the boat so that the boat was already full. But Jesus himself was in the stern, asleep on a cushion. (Mark 4:36-38 ULB)

The reflexive pronoun sometimes shows that a person or thing was alone or did something alone.

... while the kings who had come were by themselves in the field. (1 Chronicles 19:9 ULB)

When Jesus realized that they were about to come and seize him by force to make him king, he withdrew again up the mountain by himself. (John 6:15 ULB)

Translation Strategies

If a reflexive pronoun would have the same function in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other strategies that some languages use.

1. Show that the object of the verb is the same as the subject by putting something on the verb.
2. Emphasize a certain person or thing by referring to it in a special place in the sentence.
3. Emphasize a certain person or thing by adding something to that word or putting another word with it.
4. Show that a person or thing was alone or did something alone by using a word like "alone."

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Show that the object of the verb is the same as the subject by putting something on the verb.

• If I should testify about myself, my testimony would not be true. (John 5:31 ULB)
  • If I should self-testify, my testimony would not be true.
• Now the Passover of the Jews was near, and many went up to Jerusalem out of the country before the Passover in order to purify themselves. (John 11:55 ULB)
  • Now the Passover of the Jews was near, and many went up to Jerusalem out of the country before the Passover in order to self-purify.

1. Emphasize a certain person or thing by referring to it in a special place in the sentence.

• He himself took our sickness and bore our diseases. (Matthew 8:17 ULB)
  • It was he who took our sickness and bore our diseases.
• Jesus himself was not baptizing, but his disciples were. (John 4:2 ULB)
  • It was not Jesus who was baptizing, but his disciples were.

1. Emphasize a certain person or thing by adding something to that word or putting another word with it.

• But Jesus said this to test Philip, for he himself knew what he was going to do. (John 6:6 ULB)
  • But Jesus said this to test Philip, for he personally knew what he was going to do.

1. Show that a person or thing was alone or did something alone by using a word like "alone."

• When Jesus realized that they were about to come and seize him by force to make him king, he withdrew again up the mountain by himself. (John 6:15)
  • When Jesus realized that they were about to come and seize him by force to make him king, he withdrew again alone up the mountain.

Pronouns - When to Use Them

Description

When we talk or write, we use pronouns to refer to people or things without always having to repeat the noun or name. Usually the first time we refer to someone in a story, we use a descriptive phrase or a name. The next time we might refer to that person with a simple noun or by name. After that we might refer to him simply with a pronoun, as long as we think that our listeners will be able to understand easily to whom the pronoun refers.

Each language has its rules and exceptions to this usual way of referring to people and things.

• In some languages the first time something is referred to in a paragraph or chapter, it is referred to with a noun rather than a pronoun.
• The main character is the person whom a story is about. In some languages, after a main character is introduced in a story, he is usually referred to with a pronoun. Some languages have special pronouns that refer only to the main character.
• In some languages, marking on the verb helps people know who the subject is. (see Verbs) In some of these languages, listeners rely on this marking to help them understand who the subject is, and speakers use a pronoun, noun phrase, or name only when they want to emphasize or clarify who the subject is.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• If translators use a pronoun at the wrong time for their language, readers might not know who the writer is talking about.
• If translators too frequently refer to a main character by name, listeners of some languages might not realize that the person is a main character, or they might think that there is a new character with the same name.
• If translators use pronouns, nouns, or names at the wrong time, people might think that there is some special emphasis on the person or thing it refers to.

Examples from the Bible

Now there was a Pharisee whose name was Nicodemus, a member of the Jewish Council. This man came to Jesus ... Jesus replied to him (John 3:1-3 ULB)

In John 3, Nicodemus is first referred to with noun phrases and his name. Then he is referred to with the noun phrase "this man." Then he is referred to with the pronoun "him."

Then he spoke a parable to them about how they should always pray and not become discouraged. (Luke 18:1 ULB)

The example above occurs at the beginning of a chapter. In some languages it might not be clear whom the pronouns refer to.

The prison warden gave into Joseph's hand all the prisoners who were in the prison. Whatever they did there, Joseph was in charge of it. The prison warden did not worry about anything that was in his hand, because Yahweh was with him. Whatever he did, Yahweh prospered. (Genesis 39:22-23 ULB)

In the example above, two men are named in the first two sentences and the beginning of the third. It might not be clear whom "him," "his," and "he" in the third sentence refer to.

At that time Jesus went on the Sabbath day through the grainfields. His disciples were hungry and began to pluck heads of grain and eat them. But when the Pharisees saw that, they said to Jesus, "See, your disciples do what is unlawful to do on the Sabbath." But Jesus said to them, "Have you never read what David did, when he was hungry, and the men who were with him? ..." Then Jesus left from there and went into their synagogue. (Matthew 12:1-9 ULB)

Jesus is the main character of the book of Matthew, but in the verses above he is referred to four times by name. This may lead speakers of some languages to think that Jesus is not the main character. Or it might lead them to think that there is more than one person named Jesus in this story. Or it might lead them to think that there is some kind of emphasis on him, even though there is no emphasis.

Translation Strategies

1. If it would not be clear to your readers whom or what a pronoun refers to, use a noun or name.
2. If repeating a noun or name would lead people to think that a main character is not a main character, or that the writer is talking about more than one person with that name, or that there is some kind of emphasis on someone when there is no emphasis, use a pronoun instead.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If it would not be clear to your readers whom or what a pronoun refers to, use a noun or name.

• Then he spoke a parable to them about how they should always pray and not become discouraged. (Luke 18:1 ULB)
  • Then Jesus spoke a parable to his disciples about how they should always pray and not become discouraged.

1. If repeating a noun or name would lead people to think that a main character is not a main character, or that the writer is talking about more than one person with that name, or that there is some kind of emphasis on someone when there is no emphasis, use a pronoun instead.

• At that time Jesus went on the Sabbath day through the grain fields. His disciples were hungry and began to pluck heads of grain and eat them. But when the Pharisees saw that, they said to Jesus, "See, your disciples do what is unlawful to do on the Sabbath." But Jesus said to them, "Have you never read what David did when he was hungry, and the men who were with him? ... Then Jesus left from there and went into their synagogue. (Matthew 12:1-9 ULB)
  • At that time Jesus went on the Sabbath day through the grain fields. His disciples were hungry and began to pluck heads of grain and eat them. But when the Pharisees saw that, they said to him, "See, your disciples do what is unlawful to do on the Sabbath. But he said to them, "Have you never read what David did when he was hungry, and the men who were with him? ... Then he left from there and went into their synagogue.

Sentence Structure

Description

The simplest sentence structure in English includes a subject and an action word:

• The boy ran.

Subject

The subject is who or what the sentence is about. In these examples, the subject is underlined:

• The boy is running.
• He is running.

Subjects are typically noun phrases or pronouns. (see Parts of Speach) In the examples above, "the boy" is a noun phrase that has the noun "boy," and "he" is a pronoun.

When the sentence is a command, in many languages it does not have a subject pronoun. People understand that the subject is "you."

• Close the door.

Predicate

The predicate is the part of a sentence that tells something about the subject. It usually has a verb. (See: Verbs) In the sentences below, the subjects are "the man" and "he." The predicates are underlined and the verbs are in bold.

• The man is strong.
• He worked hard.
• He made a garden.

Compound Sentences

A sentence can be made up of more than one sentence. Each of the two lines below has a subject and a predicate and is a full sentence.

• He planted the yams.
• His wife planted the corn.

The compound sentence below contains the two sentences above. In English, compound sentences are joined with a conjunction such as "and," "but," or "or."

• He planted the yams and his wife planted the corn.

Clauses

Sentences can also have clauses and other phrases. Clauses are like sentences because they have a subject and a predicate, but they do not normally occur by themselves. Here are some examples of clauses. The subjects are in bold, and the predicates are underlined.

• when the corn was ready
• after she picked it
• because it tasted so good

Sentences can have many clauses, and so they can become long and complex. But each sentence has to have at least one independent clause, that is, a clause that can be a sentence all by itself. The other clauses that cannot be sentences by themselves are called the dependent clauses. Dependent clauses depend on the independent clause to complete their meaning. The dependent clauses are underlined in the sentences below.

• When the corn was ready, she picked it.
• After she picked it, she carried it home and cooked it.
• Then she and her husband ate it all, because it tasted so good.

The following phrases can each be a whole sentence. They are the independent clauses from the sentences above.

• She picked it.
• She carried it home and cooked it.
• Then she and her husband ate it all.

Relative Clauses

In some languages, clauses can be used with a noun that is part of a sentence. These are called relative clauses.

In the sentence below, "the corn that was ready" is part of the predicate of the whole sentence. The relative clause "that was ready" is used with the noun "corn" to tell which corn she picked.

• His wife picked the corn that was ready.

In the sentence below "her mother, who was very annoyed" is part of the predicate of the whole sentence. The relative clause "who was very annoyed" is used with the noun "mother" to tell how her mother felt when she did not get any corn.

• She did not give any corn to her mother, who was very annoyed.

Translation Issues

• Languages have different orders for the parts of a sentence.
• Some languages do not have relative clauses, or they use them in a limited way. (see Distinguishing versus Informing or Reminding)

Sentence Types

Description

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought. The basic types of sentences are listed below with the functions they are mainly used for.

• Statements - These are mainly used to give information. 'This is a fact.'
• Questions - These are mainly used to ask for information. 'Do you know him?'
• Imperative Sentences - These are mainly used to express a desire or requirement that someone do something. 'Pick that up.'
• Exclamations - These are mainly used to express a strong feeling. 'Ouch, that hurt!'

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Languages have different ways of using sentence types to express particular functions.
• Most languages use these sentence types for more than one function.
• Each sentence in the Bible belongs to a certain sentence type and has a certain function, but some languages would not use that type of sentence for that function.

Examples from the Bible

The examples below show each of these types used for their main functions.

Statements

People usually use statements to give information.

In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. (Genesis 1:1 ULB)

Statements can also have other functions. (see Statements - Other Uses)

Questions

People usually use questions to get information, and they expect to receive an answer.

Jesus said to them, "Do you believe that I can do this?" They said to him, "Yes, Lord." (Matthew 9:28 ULB)

The jailer...said, "Sirs, what must I do to be saved?" They said, "Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved, you and your house." (Acts 16:29-31 ULB)

Questions can also have other functions. (see Rhetorical Question)

Imperative Sentences

There are different kinds of imperative sentences: commands, instructions, suggestions, invitations, requests, and wishes.

With a command, the speaker uses his authority and tells someone to do something.

Rise up, Balak, and hear. Listen to me, you son of Zippor. (Numbers 23:18 ULB)

With an instruction, the speaker tells someone how to do something.

...but if you want to enter into life, keep the commandments. ... If you wish to be perfect, go, sell what you have, and give to the poor, and you will have treasure in heaven. (Matthew 19:17, 21 ULB)

With a suggestion, the speaker tells someone to do something that he thinks might help that person.

Now let Pharaoh look for a man discerning and wise, and put him over the land of Egypt. (Genesis 41:33)

• Joseph was speaking to Pharaoh and gave him a very polite suggestion about what to do so that Pharaoh's people would live.

Speakers may intend to be part of the group that does what is suggested.

Then they said to each other, "Let us make bricks and bake them to make them hard ... (Genesis 11:3 ULB)

• In Genesis 11, the people were saying that it would be good for them all to make bricks together.

With an invitation, the speaker uses politeness or friendliness to suggest that someone do something if he wants. This is usually something that the speaker thinks the listener will enjoy.

Come with us and we will do you good. (Numbers 10:29)

With a request, the speaker uses politeness to say that he wants someone to do something. This may include the word 'please' to make it clear that it is a request and not a command. This is usually something that would benefit the speaker.

Give us today our daily bread. (Matthew 6:11 ULB)

Please excuse me. (Luke 14:18 ULB)

With a wish, a person expresses what they want to happen. In English, wishes often start with the word "may" or "let."

May God Almighty bless you, make you fruitful and multiply you ... (Genesis 28:3 ULB)

• In Genesis 28, Isaac told Jacob what he wanted God to do for him.

Cursed be Canaan. May he be a servant to his brothers' servants. (Genesis 9:25 ULB)

• In Genesis 9, Noah said what he wanted to happen to Canaan.

Imperative sentences also have other functions. (see Imperatives - Other Uses)

Exclamations

Exclamations express strong feeling. In the ULB and UDB, they usually have an exclamation mark (!) at the end.

Save us, Lord; we are about to die! (Matthew 8:25 ULB)

• In the example above, Jesus's disciples showed their fear and how urgently they needed help.

(See Exclamations for other ways that exclamations are shown and ways to translate them.)

Translation Strategies

1. Use your language's ways of showing that a sentence has a particular function.
2. When a sentence in the Bible has a sentence type that your language would not use for the sentence's function, see the pages below for translation strategies.

• Statements - Other Uses
• Rhetorical Question
• Imperatives - Other Uses
• Exclamations

Statements - Other Uses

Description

Normally statements are used to give information. But sometimes they are used in the Bible for other functions.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Some languages would not use a statement for some of the functions that statements are used for in the Bible.

Examples from the Bible

Statements are normally used to give information.

There was a man who was sent from God, whose name was John. He came as a witness to testify about the light, that all might believe through him. John was not the light, but came that he might testify about the light. (John 1:6-8 ULB)

• All of the sentences in John 1:6-8 above are statements, and their function is to give information.

Statements can also be used as commands to tell people what to do.

He commanded them, saying, "This is what you must do. A third of you who come on the Sabbath will keep watch over the king's house, and a third will be at the Sur Gate, and a third at the gate behind the guardhouse." (2 Kings 11:5-6 ULB)

• The high priest used a statement with the verb "must" and then statements with the verb "will" to tell people what to do.

Statements can also be used to give instructions.

She will give birth to a son, and you will call his name Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins. (Matthew 1:21 ULB)

• The angel was not simply telling Joseph about something Joseph would do in the future; he was telling Joseph what he needed to do.

Statement can also be used to make requests.

Behold, a leper came to him and bowed before him, saying, "Lord, if you are willing, you can make me clean." (Matthew 8:2 ULB)

• The man with leprosy was not just saying what Jesus was able to do. He was also asking Jesus to heal him.

Statements can also be used to perform something.

Cursed is the ground because of you. (Genesis 3:17 ULB)

• By telling Adam that the ground was cursed because of him, God actually cursed it.

Seeing their faith, Jesus said to the paralyzed man, "Son, your sins are forgiven." (Mark 2:5 ULB)

• By telling a man that his sins were forgiven, Jesus forgave the man's sins.

Translation Strategies

1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, change it to a sentence type that would express that function.
2. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, add a sentence type that would express that function.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, change it to a sentence type that would express that function.

• She will give birth to a son, and you will call his name Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins. (Matthew 1:21 ULB)
  • She will give birth to a son. Name him Jesus, because he will save his people from their sins.

1. If the function of a statement would not be understood correctly in your language, add a sentence type that would express that function.

• Lord, if you are willing, you can make me clean. (Matthew 8:2 ULB)
  • Lord, if you are willing, you can make me clean. Please do so.
  • Lord, if you are willing, please make me clean. I know you can do so.

Imperatives - Other Uses

Description

Imperative sentences are mainly used to express a desire or requirement that someone do something. Sometimes imperative sentences in the Bible have other uses.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Some languages would not use an imperative sentence for some of the functions that they are used for in the Bible.

Examples from the Bible

Imperatives are normally used to tell someone to do something.

Do not go down to Egypt; live in the land that I tell you to live in. (Genesis 26:2 ULB)

• God told Isaac not to go to Egypt but to live where God would tell him to live.

Imperatives can be used to make things happen.

God said, "Let there be light," and there was light. (Genesis 1:3 ULB)

• God commanded that there should be light, and by commanding it, he caused light to exist.

Jesus reached out his hand and touched him, saying, "I am willing. Be clean." Immediately he was cleansed of his leprosy. (Matthew 8:3 ULB)

• Jesus healed a man by commanding that the man be healed. The man could not do anything to obey the command, but Jesus caused him to be healed by commanding it. ("Be clean" means "Be healed.")

Imperatives can be used as blessings.

God blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful, and multiply. Fill the earth, and subdue it. Have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth." (Genesis 1:28 ULB)

In the Bible, God blesses people by using imperatives. This indicates what his will is for them, and he causes his will to happen, often sometime later in the future.

Imperatives can be used as conditions under which something will happen if the condition is met. These are often used in proverbs, which teach about life and things that often happen.

... do not abandon wisdom and she will watch over you; love her and she will keep you safe. (Proverbs 4:6 ULB)

• The purpose of Proverbs 4:6 is to teach what people can expect to happen if they love wisdom; it is not primarily to give a command.

Teach a child the way he should go, and when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction. (Proverbs 22:6 ULB)

• The purpose of Proverbs 22:6 is teach what people can expect to happen if they teach their children the way they should go.

Translation Strategies

1. If people would not use an imperative sentence for one of the functions in the Bible, try using a statement instead.
2. If people would not understand that a sentence is used to cause something to happen, add a connecting word like "so" to show that what happened was a result of what was said.
3. If a command in the ULB functions as a condition, and people would not use a command that way, translate it as a condition with the words "if" and "then."

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If people would not use an imperative sentence for one of the functions in the Bible, try using a statement instead.

• Be clean. (Matthew 8:3 ULB)
  • You are now clean.
  • I now cleanse you.
• God said, "Let there be light," and there was light. (Genesis 1:3 ULB)
  • God said, "There is now light" and there was light.
• God blessed them and said to them, "Be fruitful, and multiply. Fill the earth, and subdue it. Have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth." (Genesis 1:3 ULB)
  • God blessed them and said to them, "My will for you is that you be fruitful, and multiply. Fill the earth, and subdue it. I want you to have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the sky, and over every living thing that moves upon the earth."

1. If people would not understand that a sentence is used to cause something to happen, add a connecting word like "so" to show that what happened was a result of what was said.

• God said, "Let there be light," and there was light. (Genesis 1:28 ULB)
  • God said, 'Let there be light,' so there was light.
  • God said, "Light must be;" as a result, there was light.

1. If a command in the ULB functions as a condition, and people would not use a command that way, translate it as a condition with the words "if" and "then."
   • Teach a child the way he should go, and when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction. (Proverbs 22:6 ULB)
     • If you teach a child the way he should go, then when he is old he will not turn away from that instruction.

Exclamations

Description

Exclamations are words or sentences that show strong feeling such as surprise, joy, fear, or anger. In the ULB and UDB, they usually have an exclamation mark (!) at the end. The mark shows that it is an exclamation. The situation and the meaning of what the people say helps us understand what feelings they were expressing.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Languages have different ways of showing that a sentence communicates strong emotion.

Examples from the Bible

Some exclamations have no special words that show the feeling.

As he began to sink, he cried out and said, "Lord, save me!" (Matthew 8:25 ULB)

• Peter was afraid when he cried out to the Lord to save him.

When the demon had been driven out, the mute man spoke. The crowds were astonished and said, "This has never been seen before in Israel!" (Matthew 9:33 ULB)

• The crowds were amazed, because something happened that they had never seen before. Their voices probably showed how they felt.

Some exclamations have a word that shows feeling.

Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33 ULB)

• The word "oh" in the exclamation shows that the writer was amazed.

Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, "Ah, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!" (Judges 6:22 ULB)

• The word "Ah" shows that Gideon was very frightened.

Some exclamations begin with a question word, even though they are not questions.

How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering! (Romans 11:33 ULB)

• The word "How" in the exclamation shows that the writer was amazed.

Some exclamations do not have a main verb.

You worthless person! (Matthew 5:22 ULB)

• The exclamation above does not have a verb. The speaker's words show that he is disgusted with the person he is speaking to.

Translation Strategies

1. If an exclamation in your language needs a verb, add one. Often a good verb is "is" or "are."
2. Use an exclamation word from your language that shows the strong feeling.
3. Translate the exclamation word with a sentence that shows the feeling.
4. Use a word that emphasizes the part of the sentence that brings about the strong feeling.
5. If the strong feeling is not clear in the target language, then tell how the person felt.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If an exclamation in your language needs a verb, add one. Often a good verb is "is" or "are."

• You worthless person! (Matthew 5:22 ULB)
  • You are such a worthless person!
• Oh, the depth of the riches both of the wisdom and the knowledge of God! (Romans 11:33 ULB)
  • Oh, the riches of the wisdom and the knowledge of God are so deep!

1. Use an exclamation word from your language that shows the strong feeling.

• They were extremely astonished, saying, "He has done all things well. He even makes the deaf hear and the mute speak." (Mark 7:37 ULB)
  • They were extremely astonished, saying, "Wow! He has done all things well. He even makes the deaf hear and the mute speak."
• Ah, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face! (Judges 6:22 ULB)
  • Oh no, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!

1. Translate the exclamation word with a sentence that shows the feeling.

• Ah, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face! (Judges 6:22 ULB)
  • Lord Yahweh, what will happen to me? For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!"
  • Help, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!

1. Use a word that emphasizes the part of the sentence that brings about the strong feeling.

• How unsearchable are his judgments, and his ways beyond discovering! (Romans 11:33 ULB)
  • His judgements are so unsearchable and his ways are far beyond discovering!

1. If the strong feeling is not clear in the target language, then tell how the person felt.

• Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon said, "Ah, Lord Yahweh! For I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face!" (Judges 6:22 ULB)
  • Gideon understood that this was the angel of Yahweh. Gideon was terrified and said, "Ah, Lord Yahweh! I have seen the angel of Yahweh face to face! (Judges 6:22 ULB)

Quotations and Quote Margins

Description

When saying that someone said something, we often tell who spoke, whom they spoke to, and what they said. The information about who spoke and whom they spoke to is called the quote margin. What the person said is the quotation. (This is also called a quote.) In some languages the quote margin may come first, last, or even in between two parts of the quotation.

The quote margins are underlined below.

• She said, "The food is ready. Come and eat."
• "The food is ready. Come and eat," she said.
• "The food is ready," she said. "Come and eat."

Also in some languages, the quote margin may have more than one verb meaning "speak."

• She called out and said, "The food is ready. Come and eat."

When writing that someone said something, some languages put the quote (what was said) in quotation marks. Some languages use inverted commas (" " or ' '), some use angle quote marks (« » or ‹ ›), and some use brackets (⎡ ⎦). Some languages put quotes after a dash (—).

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Translators need to put the quote margin where it is most clear and natural in their language.
• Translators need to decide whether they want the quote margin to have one or two verbs meaning "speak."
• Translators need to decide which marks to use for the quotations.

Examples from the Bible

Sometimes the quote margin is before the quote.

Zechariah said to the angel, "How can I know this? For I am an old man and my wife is very old." (Luke 1:18 ULB)

Sometimes the quote margin is after the quote.

Yahweh relented concerning this. "It will not happen," he said. (Amos 7:3 ULB)

Sometimes the quote margin is between two parts of the quote.

"I will hide my face from them," he said, "and I will see what their end will be; for they are a perverse generation, children who are unfaithful." (Deuteronomy 32:20 ULB)

"Therefore, those who can," he said, "should go there with us. If there is something wrong with the man, you should accuse him." (Acts 25:5 ULB)

Sometimes the quote margin has two verbs meaning "speak."

But his mother answered and said, "No. He will be called John." (Luke 1:60 ULB)

Translation Strategies

1. Decide where to put the quote margin.
2. Decide whether to use one or two words meaning "speak."

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Decide where to put the quote margin.

• "Therefore, those who can," he said, "should go there with us. If there is something wrong with the man, you should accuse him." (Acts 25:5 ULB)
  • He said, "Therefore, those who can should go there with us. If there is something wrong with the man, you should accuse him."
  • "Therefore, those who can should go there with us. If there is something wrong with the man, you should accuse him," he said.
  • "Therefore, those who can should go there with us," he said. "If there is something wrong with the man, you should accuse him."

1. Decide whether to use one or two words meaning "speak."

• But his mother answered and said, "No. He will be called John." (Luke 1:60 ULB)
  • But his mother replied, "No, instead he will be called John."
  • But his mother said, "No, instead he will be called John."
  • But his mother answered like this, "No, instead he will be called John," she said.

Direct and Indirect Quotations

Description

There are two kinds of quotations: direct quotation and indirect quotation.

A direct quotation occurs when someone reports what another person said from the viewpoint of that original speaker. People usually expect that this kind of quotation will represent the original speaker's exact words. In the example below, John would have said "I" when referring to himself, so the narrator, who is reporting John's words, uses the word "I" in the quotation to refer to John. To show that these are the words as John might have said them, many languages put the words between quotation marks:"".

• John said, "I do not know at what time I will arrive."

An indirect quotation occurs when a speaker reports what someone else said, but in this case, the speaker is reporting it from his own point of view instead of from the original person's point of view. This kind of quotation usually features changes in pronouns, and it often features changes in time, in word choices, and in length. In the example below, the narrator refers to John as "he" in the quotation and uses the word "would," to replace the future tense indicated by "will."

• John said that he did not know at what time he would arrive.

Reasons this is a translation issue

In some languages, reported speech can be expressed by either direct or indirect quotations. In other languages, it is more natural to use one rather than the other, or there is a certain meaning implied by using one rather than the other. So for each quotation, translators need to decide whether it is best to translate it as a direct quotation or an indirect quotation.

Examples from the Bible

The verses in the examples below contain both direct and indirect quotations. In the explanation below the verse, we have underlined the quotations.

He instructed him to tell no one, but told him, "Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them." (Luke 5:14 ULB)

• Indirect quote: He instructed him to tell no one,
• Direct quote: but told him, "Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest."

Being asked by the Pharisees when the kingdom of God would come, Jesus answered them and said, "The kingdom of God is not something that can be observed. Neither will they say, 'Look here!' or, 'Look there!' because the kingdom of God is among you." (Luke 17:20-21 ULB)

• Indirect quote: Being asked by the Pharisees when the kingdom of God would come,
• Direct quote: Jesus answered them and said, "The kingdom of God is not something that can be observed. Neither will they say, 'Look here!' or, 'Look there!' because the kingdom of God is among you."
• Direct quotes: Neither will they say, 'Look here!' or, 'Look there!'

Translation Strategies

If the kind of quote used in the source text would work well in your language, consider using it. If the kind of quote used in that context is not natural for your language, follow these strategies.

1. If a direct quote would not work well in your language, change it to an indirect quote.
2. If an indirect quote would not work well in your language, change it to a direct quote.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If a direct quote would not work well in your language, change it to an indirect quote.

• He instructed him to tell no one, but told him, "Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them." (Luke 5:14 ULB)
  • He instructed him to tell no one, but to go on his way, and to show himself to the priest and to offer a sacrifice for his cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them."

1. If an indirect quote would not work well in your language, change it to a direct quote.

• He instructed him, to tell no one, but told him, "Go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them." (Luke 5:14 ULB)
  • He instructed him, "Tell no one. Just go on your way, and show yourself to the priest and offer a sacrifice for your cleansing, according to what Moses commanded, for a testimony to them."

Quotes Within Quotes

Description

A quotation may have a quote within it, and quotes that are inside of other quotes can also have quotes within them. When a quote has quotes within it, we can talk about it having layers of quotation, and each of the quotes is a layer. When there are many layers of quotes inside of quotes, it can be hard for listeners and readers to know who is saying what

Reasons this is a translation issue

• When there is a quote within a quote, the listener needs to know who the speaker of each quote is and to whom he is speaking.
• When there is a quote within a quote, the listener needs to know who the pronouns refer to. For example if a quote that is inside a quote has the word "I," the listener needs to know whether "I" refers to the speaker of the inner quote or the outer quote.

Examples from the Bible

Some quotations have only one layer.

But Paul said, "I was born a Roman citizen." (Acts 22:28 ULB)

Some quotations have two layers.

Then some of his disciples said to one another, "What is this that he says to us, 'A short amount of time you will no longer see me and after another short amount of time you will see me,' and, 'Because I go to the Father'?" (John 16:17 ULB)

• The outermost layer is what the disciples said to one another. The second layer is what Jesus had said. (We have underlined the second layer.)

Jesus answered, "You say that I am a king." (John 18:37 ULB)

• The outermost layer is what Jesus said to Pilate. The second layer is what Pilate said about Jesus. (We have underlined the second layer.)

Some quotations have three layers.

Then the chief priests of the Jews said to Pilate, "Do not write, 'The King of the Jews,' but rather, 'This one said, "I am King of the Jews."'" (John 19:21 ULB)

• The outermost layer is what the chief priests said to Pilate. The second layer is what the priests want Pilate to write. The third layer is what "This one" supposedly said. (We have underlined the third layer.)

Some quotations have four layers.

They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: 'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.'"'" (2 Kings 1:6 ULB)

• The outermost layer is what the messengers said to the king. The second layer is what the man who had met the messengers told them. The third is what that man wanted the messengers to say to the king. The fourth is what had Yahweh said. (We have underlined the fourth layer.)

Translation Strategies

1. Alternate two kinds of quote marks to show layers of direct quotation. English alternates double quote marks and single quote marks. (For other kinds of quote marks, see Quotations and Quote Margins)
2. Translate one or some of the quotes as indirect quotes. (see Direct and Indirect Quotations)
3. If a quotation is very long and has many layers of quotation in it, indent the main overall quote, and use quote marks only for the direct quotes inside of it.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Alternate two kinds of quote marks to show layers of direct quotation as shown in the ULB text below.

   • They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: 'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.'"'" (2 Kings 1:6 ULB)

2. Translate one or some of the quotes as indirect quotes in order to use fewer quote marks.

   • They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: 'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.'"'" (2 Kings 1:6 ULB)
     • They told him that a man came to meet them who said to them, "Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, 'Yahweh says this: "Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die."'"

3. If a quotation is very long and has many layers of quotation in it, indent the main overall quote, and use quote marks only for the direct quotes inside of it.

   • They said to him, "A man came to meet us who said to us, 'Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, "Yahweh says this: 'Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die.'"'" (2 Kings 1:6 ULB)
     • They said to him,
       A man came to meet us who said to us, "Go back to the king who sent you, and say to him, 'Yahweh says this: "Is it because there is no God in Israel that you sent men to consult with Baal-Zebub, the god of Ekron? Therefore you will not come down from the bed to which you have gone up; instead, you will certainly die."'"

Types of Writing

Description

There are different kinds or types of writing, and each type of writing has its own purpose. Because these purposes are different, the different kinds of writing are organized in different ways. They use different verbs, different kinds of sentences, and refer to the people and things that they write about in different ways. These differences help the reader to quickly know the purpose of the writing, and they work to communicate the author's meaning in the best way.

The following are four basic types of writing that exist in every language. Each type of writing has a different purpose.

• Narrative or Parable - tells a story or event
• Explanatory - explains facts or teaches principles
• Procedural - tells how to do something
• Argumentative - tries to persuade someone to do something

Reasons this is a translation issue

Every language has its own way of organizing these different types of writing. The translator must understand the type of writing that he is translating, understand how it is organized in the source language, and also know how his language organizes this kind of writing. He must put the writing into the form that his language uses for that type of writing so that people will understand it correctly. In every translation, the way that words, sentences, and paragraphs are arranged will affect how people will understand the message.

Writing Styles

The following are ways of writing that may combine with the four basic types above. These writing styles often present challenges in translation.

• Poetry - expresses ideas and feelings in a beautiful way
• Proverbs - briefly teaches a truth or wisdom
• Symbolic Language - uses symbols to represent things and events
• Symbolic Prophecy - uses symbolic language to show what will happen in the future
• Conditions That Are Contrary to Fact - tells about what would happen if something were real or expresses an emotion about something that is not real

Discourse Features

The differences between the different types of writing in a language can be called their discourse features. The purpose of a particular text will influence what kinds of discourse features are used. For example, in a narrative, discourse features would include:

• Telling about events that happen before and after other events
• Introducing people in the story
• Introducing new events in the story
• Conversation and the use of quotes
• Referring to people and things with nouns or pronouns

Languages have different ways of using these different discourse features. The translator will need to study the way his language does each of these things, so that his translation communicates the right message in a clear and natural way. Other types of writing have other discourse features.

Specific discourse issues

1. Introduction of a New Event - Phrases like "One day" or "It came about that" or "This is how it happened" or "Sometime after that" signal to the reader that a new event is about to be told.
2. Introduction of New and Old Participants - Languages have ways of introducing new people and of referring to those people again.
3. Background Information - An author may use background information for several reasons: 1) to add interest to the story, 2) to provide information that is important for understanding the story or 3) to explain why something in the story is important.
4. Pronouns - When to Use Them - Languages have patterns for how frequently to use pronouns. If that pattern is not followed, wrong meaning can result.
5. End of Story - Stories can end with various kinds of information. Languages have different ways of showing how that information is related to the story.
6. Quotations and Quote Margins - Languages have different ways of reporting what someone said.
7. Connecting Words - Languages have patterns for how to use connecting words (such as "and," "but," or "then").

Background Information

Description

When people tell a story, they normally tell the events in the order that they happened. This sequence of events makes up the storyline. The storyline is full of action verbs that move the story along in time. But sometimes a writer may take a break from the storyline and give some information to help his listeners understand the story better. This type of information is called background information. The background information might be about things that happened before the events he has already told about, or it might explain something in the story, or it might be about something that would happen much later in the story.

Example - The underlined sentences in the story below are all background information.

Peter and John went on a hunting trip because their village was going to have a a feast the next day. Peter was the best hunter in the village. He once killed three wild pigs in one day! They walked for hours through low bushes until they heard a wild pig. The pig ran, but they managed to shoot the pig and kill it. Then they tied up its legs with some rope they had brought with them, and carried it home on a pole. When they brought it to the village, Peter's cousin saw the pig and realized that it was his own pig. Peter had mistakenly killed his cousin's pig.

Background information often tells about something that had happened earlier or something that would happen much later. Examples of these are "their village was going to have a feast the next day" and "He once killed three wild pigs in one day," "that they had brought with them," and "Peter had mistakenly killed his cousins's pig.

Often background information uses "be" verbs like "was" and "were", rather than action verbs. Examples of these are "Peter was the best hunter in the village" and "it was his own pig."

Background information can also be marked with words that tell the reader that this information is not part of the event line of the story. In this story, some of these words are "because," "once," and "had."

A writer may use background information

• To help their listeners be interested in the story
• To help their listeners understand something in the story
• To help the listeners understand why something is important in the story
• To tell the setting of a story
• Setting includes:
  • where the story takes place
  • when the story takes place
  • who is present when the story begins
  • what is happening when the story begins

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Languages have different ways of marking background information and storyline information.
• Translators need to know the order of the events in the Bible, which information is background information, and which is storyline information.
• Translators need to translate the story in a way that their own readers will understand the order of events, which information is background information, and which is storyline information.

Examples from the Bible

Hagar gave birth to Abram's son, and Abram named his son, whom Hagar bore, Ishmael. Abram was eighty-six years old when Hagar bore Ishmael to Abram. (Genesis 16:16 ULB)

• The first sentence tells about two events. Hagar gave birth, and Abraham named his son. The second sentence is background information about how old Abram was when those things happened.

Now Jesus himself, when he began to teach, was about thirty years of age. He was the son (as was supposed) of Joseph, the son of Heli. (Luke 3:23 ULB)

• The verses before Luke 3:23 tell about when Jesus was baptized. English uses the word "Now" to show that there is some kind of change in the kind of information being given. These sentences give background information about Jesus's age and ancestors. The story starts up again in chapter 4 where it tells about Jesus going to the wilderness.

Now it happened on a Sabbath that Jesus was going through the grain fields and his disciples were picking the heads of grain, rubbing them between their hands, and eating the grain. But some of the Pharisees said ... (Luke 6:1-2a ULB)

• These verses give the setting of the story. The events took place in a grain field on the Sabbath day. Jesus, his disciples, and some Pharisees were there, and Jesus's disciples were picking heads of grain and eating them. The main action in the story starts with the sentence, "But some of the Pharisees said."

Now Deborah, a prophetess (the wife of Lappidoth), was a leading judge in Israel at that time. She used to sit under the palm of Deborah between Ramah and Bethel in the hill country of Ephraim, and the people of Israel came to her to settle their disputes. She sent for Barak son of Abinoam from Kedesh in Naphtali. (Judges 4:4-6 ULB)

• In English, the parentheses and the verbs "was" and "used to" are clues that the first two sentences are background information.

With many other exhortations also, he preached good news to the people. John also rebuked Herod the tetrarch for marrying his brother's wife, Herodias, and for all the other evil things that Herod had done. But then Herod did another very evil thing. He had John locked up in prison. (Luke 3:18-20 ULB)

• John rebuked Herod for things Herod had already done. Also the verb "had" in "had done" shows that Herod did those things before John rebuked him.

Translation Strategies

To keep translations clear and natural you will need to study how people tell stories in your language. Observe how your language distinguishes background information from storyline information. You may need to write down some stories in order to study this. Observe what kind of verbs, words, and other markers are used to show what distinguish these two kinds of information. Do these same things when you translate, so that your translation is clear and natural and people can understand it easily.

1. Use your language's way of showing that certain information is background information or storyline information.
2. Reorder the information so that earlier events are mentioned first. (This is not always possible when the background information is very long.)

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use your language's way of showing that certain information is either background information or storyline information.

• For example when background information has action that was done habitually, it can be marked in English with the word "would." And to show that the events of a storyline are starting, a phrase expressing when those events occurred can be used. The example below uses "One day" for this.
  Now Deborah, a prophetess (the wife of Lappidoth), was a leading judge in Israel at that time. She used to sit under the palm of Deborah between Ramah and Bethel in the hill country of Ephraim, and the people of Israel came to her to settle their disputes. She sent for Barak son of Abinoam from Kedesh in Naphtali. (Judges 4:4-6 ULB)
  • Now Deborah, a prophetess (the wife of Lappidoth), was a leading judge in Israel at that time. She used to sit under the palm of Deborah between Ramah and Bethel in the hill country of Ephraim, and the people of Israel would come to her to settle their disputes. One day she sent for Barak son of Abinoam from Kedesh in Naphtali.

1. Reorder the information so that earlier events are mentioned first. (This is not always possible when the background information is very long.)

• Hagar gave birth to Abram's son, and Abram named his son, whom Hagar bore, Ishmael. Abram was eighty-six years old when Hagar bore Ishmael to Abram. (Genesis 16:16 ULB)
  • When Abram was eighty-six years old, Hagar gave birth to his son, and Abram named him Ishmael.
• John also rebuked Herod the tetrarch for marrying his brother's wife, Herodias, and for all the other evil things that Herod had done. But then Herod did another very evil thing. He had John locked up in prison. (Luke 3:18-20)
  • Now Herod the tetrarch married his brother's wife, Herodias, and he did many other evil things, so John rebuked him. But then Herod did another very evil thing. He had John locked up in prison.

Connecting Words

Description

Connecting words show how thoughts are related to other thoughts. They are also called conjunctions. This page is about connecting words that connect statements and groups of statements to others. Some examples of connecting words are: and, but, for, so, therefore, now, if, if only, since, then, when, while, whenever, because, yet, unless.

• It was raining, so I opened my umbrella.
• It was raining, but I did not have an umbrella. So I got very wet.

Sometimes people might not use a connecting word because they expect the readers to understand the relationship between the thoughts because of the context.

• It was raining. I did not have an umbrella. I got very wet.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Translators need to understand the meaning of a connecting word in the Bible and the relationship between the thoughts it is connecting.
• Each language has its own ways of showing how thoughts are related.
• Translators need to know how to help their readers understand the relationship between the thoughts in a way that is natural in their language.

Translation principles

• Translators need to translate in a way that readers can understand the same relationship between thoughts that the original readers would have understood.
• Whether or not a connecting word is used is not as important as readers being able to understand the relationship between the ideas.

Examples from the Bible

I did not immediately consult with flesh and blood, nor did I go up to Jerusalem to those who had become apostles before me, but instead I went to Arabia and then returned to Damascus. Then after three years I went up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas, and I stayed with him fifteen days. (Galatians 1:16-18 ULB)

• The word "but" introduces something that contrasts with what was said before. The contrast here is between what Paul did not do with what he did do. Here the word "then" introduces something Paul did after he returned to Damascus.

Therefore whoever breaks the least one of these commandments and teaches others to do so, will be called least in the kingdom of heaven. But whoever keeps them and teaches them will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. (Matthew 5:19 ULB)

• The word "Therefore" links this section with the section before it, signalling that the section that came before gave the reason for this section. "Therefore" usually links sections larger than one sentence. The word "and" links only two actions within the same sentence, that of breaking commandments and teaching others. In this verse the word "But" contrasts what one group of people will be called in God's kingdom with what another group of people will be called.

We do not place a stumbling block in front of anyone, for we do not wish our ministry to be brought into disrepute. Instead, we prove ourselves by all our actions, that we are God's servants. (2 Corinthians 6:3-4 ULB)

• Here the word "for" connects what follows as the reason for what came before; the reason that Paul does not place stumbling blocks is that he does not want his ministry brought into disrepute. "Instead" contrasts what Paul does (proving by his actions that he is God's servant) with what he said he does not do (placing stumbling blocks).

Translation Strategies

If the way the relationship between thoughts is shown in the ULB would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, then consider using it. If not, here are some other options.

1. Use a connecting word (even if the ULB does not use one).
2. Do not use a connecting word if it would be odd to use one and people would understand the right relationship between the thoughts without it.
3. Use a different connecting word that shows the same relationship between the thoughts.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use a connecting word (even if the ULB does not use one).

   • Jesus said to them, "Come after me, and I will make you become fishers of men." Immediately they left the nets and went after him. (Mark 1:17-18 ULB)
     • Some translators may want to mark this with "so" to make it clear that they followed Jesus because he told them to follow him.
       Jesus said to them, "Come after me, and I will make you become fishers of men." So immediately they left the nets and went after him.

2. Do not use a connecting word if it would be odd to use one and people would understand the right relationship between the thoughts without it.

   • Therefore whoever breaks the least one of these commandments and teaches others to do so, will be called least in the kingdom of heaven. But whoever keeps them and teaches them will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. (Matthew 5:19 ULB)
     • Therefore whoever breaks the least one of these commandments, teaching others to do so as well, will be called least in the kingdom of heaven. Whoever keeps them and teaches them will be called great in the kingdom of heaven.
   • I did not immediately consult with flesh and blood, nor did I go up to Jerusalem to those who had become apostles before me, but instead I went to Arabia and then returned to Damascus. Then after three years I went up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas, and I stayed with him fifteen days. (Galatians 1:16-18 ULB)
     • I did not immediately consult with flesh and blood, nor did I go up to Jerusalem to those who had become apostles before me. Instead I went to Arabia and then returned to Damascus. After three years I went up to Jerusalem to visit Cephas, and I stayed with him fifteen days.

3. Use a different connecting word that shows the same relationship between the thoughts.

   • Therefore whoever breaks the least one of these commandments and teaches others to do so, will be called least in the kingdom of heaven. But whoever keeps them and teaches them will be called great in the kingdom of heaven. (Matthew 5:19 ULB)
     • The word "but" is used above because of the contrast between the two groups of people. In some languages, the word "but" would imply that what comes after it is surprising. So "and" might be clearer for those languages.
       Because of that, whoever breaks the least one of these commandments and teaches others to do so, will be called least in the kingdom of heaven. And whoever keeps them and teaches them will be called great in the kingdom of heaven.
   • Since the captain could not tell anything because of all the noise, he ordered that Paul be brought into the fortress. (Acts 21:34 ULB)
     • The captain could not tell anything because of all the noise, so he ordered that Paul be brought into the fortress.

End of Story

Description

There are different types of information that may be given at the end of a story. Often this is background information. This background information is different from the actions that make up the main part of the story. A book of the Bible is often made up of many smaller stories that are part of the larger story of the book itself. For example, the story of Jesus's birth is a smaller story in the larger story of the book of Luke. Each of these stories, whether large or small, can have background information at the end of it.

Different purposes for end of story information

• To summarize the story
• To give a comment about what happened in the story
• To connect a smaller story to the larger story it is a part of
• To tell the reader what happens to a specific character after the main part of the story ends
• To tell on-going action that continues after the main part of the story ends
• To tell what happens after the story as a result of the events that happened in the story itself

Reasons this is a translation issue

Different languages have different ways of presenting these kinds of information. If translators do not use their language's ways of doing this, readers may not know these things:

• That this information is ending the story
• What the purpose of the information is
• How the information is related to the story

Translation principles

• Translate the particular kind of information at the end of a story in the way your language expresses that kind of information.
• Translate it so that people will understand how it relates to the story it is part of.
• If possible, translate the end of the story in a way that people will know where that story ends and the next begins.

Examples from the Bible

Some information at the end of a story summarizes the story.

Then the rest of the men should follow, some on planks, and some on other things from the ship. In this way it happened that all of us came safely to land. (Acts 27:44 ULB)

Many who practiced magical arts brought their books together and burned them in the sight of everyone. When they counted the value of them, it was fifty thousand pieces of silver. So the word of the Lord spread very widely in powerful ways. (Acts 19:19-20 ULB)

Some information tells about how someone thought or felt about the things that happened.

All who heard it were amazed at what was spoken to them by the shepherds. But Mary kept thinking about all the things she had heard, treasuring them in her heart. (Luke 2:18-19 ULB)

Some information tells what happens after the story as a result of the events that happened in the story itself.

"Woe to you experts in the law, because you have taken away the key of knowledge; you do not enter in yourselves, and you hinder those who are entering." After Jesus left there, the scribes and the Pharisees opposed him and argued with him about many things, trying to trap him in his own words. (Luke 11:52-54 ULB)

Some information tells the reader what happens to a specific character after the main part of the story ends.

Mary said,"My soul praises the Lord, and my spirit has rejoiced in God my savior...." Mary stayed with Elizabeth about three months and then returned to her house. (Luke 1:46-47, 56 ULB)

Translation Strategies

There are no translation strategies for this topic.

Conditions That Are Contrary to Fact

Description

A condition that is contrary to fact is false. It is not met. People sometimes talk about conditions and what would happen as a result of those conditions being met, but they know that these conditions are not met, so the results also do not happen. (The conditions are the phrase that start with "if.")

In the sentences below, the first clause with "if" is a condition that is contrary to fact. The second clause tells what the result would be if the condition were met. But since the condition is not met, the expected result does not happen.

• If he had known about the party, he would have come to it. (But he did not come.)
• If he knew about the party, he would be here. (But he is not here.)
• If he knew about the party, he would come to it. (But he probably will not come.)

Conditions that are contrary to fact can also be used to express regret about things that are not as desired.

• If only he had come.
• If only he were here.
• If only he would come.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Translators need to recognize conditions that are contrary to fact in the Bible.
• Translators need to know their own language's ways of expressing conditions that are contrary to fact.

Examples from the Bible

Conditions that are contrary to fact can be used to introduce expected results that do not happen.

"Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes." (Matthew 11:21 ULB)

• The people of Tyre and Sidon had not actually seen Jesus's miracles and repented. Jesus said this to rebuke the people of Chorazin and Bethsaida because they had seen his miracles yet they did not repent.

Martha then said to Jesus, "Lord, if you had been here, my brother would not have died." (John 11:21 ULB)

• Jesus had not come sooner, and Martha's brother died. Martha said this to express her wish that Jesus had come sooner.

...if I did not honor the presence of Jehoshaphat king of Judah, I would not pay any attention to you, or even look at you. (2 Kings 3:14 ULB)

• It was only because Elisha honored the king of Judah that he would pay attention to the king of Israel. Elisha said this to tell the king of Israel that he did not respect him.

Unless those days are shortened, no flesh would be saved; but for the sake of the elect, those days will be shortened. (Matthew 24:22 ULB)

• Jesus was talking about a future time when very bad things would happen. He told what would happen if those days of trouble were to last a long time. He did this to show how bad those days will be - so bad that if they lasted a long time, no one would be saved. But then he clarified that God will shorten those days of trouble, so that the elect (those he has chosen) will be saved.

Conditions that are contrary to fact can be used to express regret about things that are not as desired.

The Israelites said to them, "If only we had died by Yahweh's hand in the land of Egypt when we were sitting by the pots of meat and were eating bread to the full. For you have brought us out into this wilderness to kill our whole community with hunger." (Exodus 16:3 ULB)

• The Israelites were afraid they would have to suffer and die of hunger in the wilderness. So they wished that they had stayed in Egypt and died there with full stomachs. They were complaining, expressing regret that this had not happened.

Oh, if only I had wings like a dove! Then would I fly away and be at rest. (Psalm 55:6 ULB)

• David was afraid of his enemies and wished that had wings and could fly. But he could not.

Translation Principles

Know how people speaking your language show:

• that something could have happened, but did not.
• that something could be true now, but is not.
• that something could happen in the future, but will not unless something changes.
• that they wish for something that they know will not happen.
• that they regret that something did not happen.

Use your language's ways of showing these kinds of things.

Translation Strategies

There are no translation strategies for this topic.

Introduction of a New Event

Description

When people tell a story, they tell about an event or a series of events. Often they put certain information at the beginning of the story, such as who the story is about, when it happened, and where it happened. This information that the writer gives before the events of the story begin is called the setting of the story. Some new events in a story also have a setting because they might involve new people, new times, and new places. In some languages people also tell if they saw the event or heard about it from someone else.

When your people tell about events, what information do they give at the beginning? Is there a certain order that they put it in? In your translation, you will need to follow the way your language introduces new information at the beginning of a story or a new event rather than the way the source language did that. In this way your translation will sound natural and communicate clearly in your language.

Examples from the Bible

In the days of Herod king of Judea there was a certain priest named Zechariah, from the division of Abijah. His wife was from the daughters of Aaron, and her name was Elizabeth. (Luke 1:5 ULB)

The verse above introduces a story about Zechariah. The first underlined phrase tells when it happened. The next underlined phrase and the second sentence introduce the main people. Verses 6 and 7 go on to explain that Zechariah and Elizabeth were old and did not have any children. All of this is the setting.

Now it came about that Zechariah was in God's presence, carrying out the priestly duties in the order of his division. According to the customary way of choosing which priest would serve, he had been chosen by lot to enter into the temple of the Lord to burn incense. (Luke 1:8-9 ULB)

The underlined phrase above, "Now it came about that," in Luke 1:8 helps to introduce the first event in that story.

The birth of Jesus Christ happened in the following way. His mother, Mary, was engaged to marry Joseph, but before they came together, she was found to be pregnant by the Holy Spirit. (Matthew 1:18 ULB)

The underlined sentence above makes it explicit that a story about Jesus is being introduced. The story will tell about how the birth of Jesus happened.

After Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judea in the days of Herod the king, learned men from the east arrived in Jerusalem. (Matthew 2:1 ULB)

The underlined phrase above shows that the events concerning the learned men happened after Jesus was born. The second part of the sentence introduces new participants and a new event.

Now there was a Pharisee whose name was Nicodemus, a Jewish leader. This man came to Jesus at night. (John 3:1-2 ULB)

The author first introduces a new person and then tells about what he did and when he did it. In some languages it might be more natural to tell about the time first.

⁶ Noah was six hundred years old when the flood came upon the earth. ⁷ Noah, his sons, his wife, and his sons' wives went into the ark together because of the waters of the flood. (Genesis 7:6-7 ULB)

The underlined phase in verse 6 is a summary of the events that happen in the rest of chapter 7. It is not one of the events of the story. Noah and his family went into the ship before the flood came. Some languages might need to make it clear that verse 6 simply introduces the event, or move the information about the flood coming until after the information about the people going into the ship.

Translation Strategies

If the information given at the beginning of a new event is clear and natural to your readers, consider translating it as it is in the ULB or UDB. If not, consider one of these strategies.

1. Put the information that introduces the event in the order that your people put it.
2. If readers would expect certain information but it is not stated explicitly in the Bible, consider using an indefinite word or phrase such as "another time" or making some implicit information explicit. (See: https://read.bibletranslationtools.org/u/WA-Catalog/en_tm/jit.html#figs-explicit)
3. If the introduction is a summary of the whole event, use your language's way of showing that it is a summary.
4. If it would be strange in the target language to give a summary of the event at the beginning, show that the event would actually happen later in the story.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Put the information that introduces the event in the order that your people put it.

• Now there was a Pharisee whose name was Nicodemus, a Jewish leader. This man came to Jesus at night. (John 3:1,2)
  • There was a man whose name was Nicodemus. He was a Pharisee and a Jewish leader. One night he came to Jesus.
  • One night a man named Nicodemus, who was a Pharisee and a Jewish leader, came to Jesus.
• As he passed by, he saw Levi son of Alphaeus sitting at the tax collector's tent.... (Mark 2:14 ULB)
  • As he passed by, Levi the son of Alpheus was sitting at the tax collecting tent. Jesus saw him ...
  • As he passed by, there was a man sitting at the tax collecting tent. His name was Levi, and he was the son of Alpheus. Jesus saw him ...
  • As he passed by, there was a tax collector sitting at the tax collecting place. His name was Levi, and he was the son of Alpheus. Jesus saw him ...

1. If readers would expect certain information but it is not stated explicitly in the Bible, consider using an indefinite word or phrase such as "another time" or making some implicit information explicit. (See: https://read.bibletranslationtools.org/u/WA-Catalog/en_tm/jit.html#figs-explicit)

• Again he began to teach beside the lake. (Mark 4:1 ULB)
  In chapter 3 Jesus was teaching at someone's house. Readers may need to be told that this new event happened at another time, or that Jesus actually went to the lake.
  
  • Another time Jesus began to teach people again beside the lake.
  • Jesus went to the lake and began to teach people again there.

1. If the introduction is a summary of the whole event, use your language's way of showing that it is a summary.

• ⁶ Noah was six hundred years old when the flood came upon the earth. ⁷ Noah, his sons, his wife, and his sons' wives went into the ark together because of the waters of the flood. (Genesis 7:6 ULB)
  • ⁶ Now this is what happened when Noah was six hundred years old and the flood came upon the earth. ⁷ Noah, his sons, his wife, and his sons' wives went into the ark together because of the waters of the flood.
  • ⁶ This part tells about what happened when Noah was six hundred years old and the flood came upon the earth. ⁷ Noah, his sons, his wife, and his sons' wives went into the ark together because of the waters of the flood.

1. If it would be strange in the target language to give a summary of the event at the beginning, show that the event would actually happen later in the story.

• ⁶ Noah was six hundred years old when the flood came upon the earth. ⁷ Noah, his sons, his wife, and his sons' wives went into the ark together because of the waters of the flood. (Genesis 7:6-7 ULB)
  • ⁶ Noah was six hundred years old when the flood was about to come upon the earth. ⁷ Noah, his sons, his wife, and his sons' wives went into the ark together because of the waters of the flood that would come.
  • ^6-7 Noah was six hundred years old when he, his sons, his wife, and his sons' wives went into the ark together because the waters of the flood were about to come.

Introduction of New and Old Participants

Description

The first time that people or things are mentioned in a story, they are new participants. After that, whenever they are mentioned, they are old participants.

Now there was a Pharisee whose name was Nicodemus.... This man came to Jesus at night.... Jesus replied to him. (John 3:1-3)

The first underlined phrase introduces Nicodemus as a new participant. He is then referred to as "This man" and "him" when he is an old participant.

Reasons this is a translation issue

In order to make your translation clear and natural, it is necessary to refer to the participants in such a way that people will know if they are new participants or participants that they have already read about. Different languages have different ways of doing this. You should follow the way that your language does this, not the way that the source language does this.

Examples from the Bible

New Participants

Often the most important new participant is introduced with a phrase that says that he existed.

There was a man from Zorah, of the clan of the Danites, whose name was Manoah. (Judges 13:2 ULB)

• The phrase "There was" tells us that this man existed. The word "a" in "a man" tells us that the author is speaking about him for the first time. The rest of the sentence tells where this man was from, who his family was, and what his name was.

A new participant who is not the most important one is often introduced in relation to the more important person who was already introduced.

There was a man from Zorah, of the clan of the Danites, whose name was Manoah. His wife was not able to become pregnant and so she had not given birth. (Judges 13:2 ULB)

• In the example above, Manoah's wife is simply referred to as "his wife." This phrase shows her relationship to him.

Sometimes a new participant is introduced simply by name because the author assumes that the readers know who the person is.

When King David was old and advanced in years, they covered him with blankets, but he could not keep warm. (1 Kings 1:1 ULB)

• In the first verse of 1 Kings, the author assumes that his readers know who King David is, so there is no need to explain who he is.

Old Participants

A person who has already been brought into the story can be referred to with a pronoun after that.

His wife was not able to become pregnant and so she had not given birth. (Judges 13:2 ULB)

• In the example above, Manoah is referred to with the pronoun "his," and his wife is referred to with the pronoun "she".

Old participants can also be referred to in other ways, depending on what is happening in the story.

The angel of Yahweh appeared to the woman. (Judges 13:3 ULB)

• When the angel of Yahweh is introduced in the story, Manoah's wife is referred to with the noun phrase "the woman."

If the old participant has not been mentioned for a while, or if there could be confusion between participants, the author may use the participant's name again.

Then Manoah prayed to Yahweh. (Judges 13:8 ULB)

• In the example above, Manoah is referred to with his name, which the author has not used since verse 2.

Some languages have something on the verb that tells something about the subject. In some of those languages people do not always use noun phrases or pronouns for old participants when they are the subject of the sentence. The marker on the verb gives enough information for the listener to understand who the subject is. (see Verbs)

Translation Strategies

1. If the participant is new, use one of your language's ways of introducing new participants.
2. If it is not clear to whom a pronoun refers, use a noun phrase or name.
3. If an old participant is referred to by name or a noun phrase, and people wonder if this is another new participant, try using a pronoun instead. If a pronoun is not needed because people would understand it clearly from the context, then leave out the pronoun.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If the participant is new, use one of your language's ways of introducing new participants.

• Joseph, whom the apostles called Barnabas (which means Son of Encouragement), a Levite, a man from Cyprus, sold a field. (Acts 4:36-37 ULB)
  • There was a Levite from Cyprus whose name was Joseph. The apostles called him Barnabas, which means Son of encouragement. Now Joseph sold a field.

1. If it is not clear who a pronoun refers to, use a noun phrase or name.

• Then he spoke a parable to them about how they should always pray and not become discouraged. (Luke 11:1 ULB)
• When pronouns occur in the first sentence of a chapter, readers might wonder whom they refer to.
  • Then Jesus spoke a parable to his disciples about how they should always pray and not become discouraged.

1. If an old participant is referred to by name or a noun phrase, and people wonder if this is another new participant, try using a pronoun instead. If a pronoun is not needed because people would understand it clearly from the context, then leave out the pronoun.

• Now Boaz went up to the gate and sat down there. Soon, the near kinsman of whom Boaz had spoken came by. Boaz said to him.... (Ruth 4:1 ULB)
  • Now Boaz went up to the gate and sat down there. Soon, the near kinsman of whom he had spoken came by. He said to the kinsman....

Parables

Description

A parable is a short story that is told to teach a truth. Though the events in a parable could happen, they did not actually happen. They are told only to teach a truth. Parables rarely contain the names of specific people. (This may help you identify what is a parable and what is an account of a real event.) Parables often have figures of speech such as simile and metaphor.

Examples from the Bible

Then he also told them a parable. "Can a blind person guide another blind person? If he did, they would both fall into a pit, would they not?" (Luke 6:39 ULB)

• This parable teaches that if a person does not understand spiritual things, he cannot help someone else to understand spiritual things.

Neither do people light a lamp and put it under a basket, but rather, on the lampstand, and it shines for everyone in the house. Let your light shine before people in such a way that they see your good deeds and praise your Father who is in heaven. (Matthew 5:15-16 ULB)

• This parable teaches us not to hide the way we live for God from other people.

Then Jesus presented another parable to them. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants. It becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches." (Matthew 13:31-32 ULB)

• This parable teaches that the kingdom of God may seem small at first, but it will grow and spread throughout the world.

Translation Strategies

1. If a parable is hard to understand because it has unknown things in it, you can replace the unknown things with things that people in your culture know. However, be careful to keep the teaching the same. (See: Translate Unknowns)
2. If the teaching of the parable is unclear, consider telling a little about what it teaches in the introduction, such as "Jesus told this story about being generous."

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If a parable is hard to understand because it has unknown things in it, you can replace the unknown things with things that people in your culture know. However, be careful to keep the teaching the same.

• Jesus said to them, "Do you bring a lamp inside the house to put it under a basket, or under the bed? You bring it in and you put it on a lampstand." (Mark 4:21 ULB)
  • Jesus said to them, "Do you bring a lamp inside the house to put it under a basket, or under the bed? You bring it in and you put it on a high shelf.
• Then Jesus presented another parable to them. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants. It becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches." (Matthew 13:31-32 ULB)
  • Then Jesus presented another parable to them. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and planted in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all other seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches."

1. If the teaching of the parable is unclear, consider telling a little about what it teaches in the introduction, such as "Jesus told this story about being generous."

• Then Jesus presented another parable to them. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all other seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches." (Matthew 13:31-32 ULB)
  • Then Jesus presented to them another parable, which is about how the Kingdom of God grows. He said, "The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed which a man took and sowed in his field. This seed is indeed the smallest of all other seeds. But when it has grown, it is greater than the garden plants and becomes a tree, so that the birds of the air come and nest in its branches."

Poetry

Description

Poetry is one of the ways that people use the words and sounds of their language to make their speech and writing more beautiful and to express strong emotion. Through poetry, people can communicate deeper emotion than they can through simple non-poetic forms. Poetry gives more weight and elegance to statements of truth, such as proverbs, and is also easier to remember than ordinary speech.

The Bible uses poetry for songs, teaching, and prophecy. Almost all of the books of the Old Testament have poetry in them and many of the books are completely poetry.

Some things commonly found in poetry

• Many figures of speech (see Figures of Speech)
• Parallel lines (see Parallelism)
• Repetition of some or all of a line
• Lines of similar length
• Dramatic imagery
• Different use of grammar, including
  • incomplete sentences
  • lack of connective words
• Old words and expressions
• The same sound used at the end or at the beginning of two or more lines
  • Twinkle, twinkle little star,
    How I wonder what you are.
    Up above the world so high,
    Like a diamond in the sky. (from an English rhyme)

Below there are examples from the Bible for all these except "Old words and expressions" and "The same sound used at the end or at the beginning of two or more lines." It would be difficult to show here how these features were used in the original languages of the Bible.

Some places to look for poetry in your language

1. Songs, particularly old songs or songs used in children's games
2. Religious ceremony or chants of priests or witch doctors
3. Prayers, blessings, and curses
4. Old legends

Elegant or fancy speech

Elegant or fancy speech is similar to poetry in that it uses beautiful language, but it does not use all of the language's features of poetry, and it does not use them as much as poetry does. Popular speakers in the language often use elegant speech, and this is probably the easiest source of text to study to find out what makes speech elegant in your language.

Reasons this is a translation issue:

• Different languages use poetry for different things. If a certain poetic form would communicate a different meaning in your language, you may need to use a poetic from from you own language that would communicate the right meaning, or you may need to translate it without the poetry.
• In some languages, using poetry for a particular part of the Bible would make it much more powerful.

Examples from the Bible

Poetry often has figures of speech.

Keep your servant also from arrogant sins;
let them not rule over me. (Psalm 19:13 ULB)

• The example above has a figure of speech called personification. It speaks of sins as if they were a person who could rule over someone. (see Personification)

They have sharpened their tongues like swords;
they have aimed their arrows, bitter words,
so that they may shoot from secret places at someone who is innocent;
suddenly they shoot at him and fear nothing. (Psalms 64:3 ULB)

• In the example above David uses metaphor to show how dangerous his enemies' words are; their tongues are like swords and their words are like arrows. (see Metaphor)

Hebrew poetry often has parallel lines.

... for you saw my affliction;
you knew the distress of my soul. (Psalm 31:7 ULB)

• The example of parallelism above has two lines that mean the same thing. (see Parallelism)

Sometimes poetry has repeated phrases.

Oh, give thanks to Yahweh; for he is good, for his covenant faithfulness endures forever.
Oh, give thanks to the God of gods, for his covenant faithfulness endures forever.
Oh, give thanks to the Lord of lords, for his covenant faithfulness endures forever. (Psalm 136:1-3 ULB)

• The example above repeats the phrases "give thanks" and "his covenant faithfulness endures forever."

Sometimes poetry has lines of similar length.

Love is patient and kind;
love does not envy or boast;
it is not arrogant or rude. (1 Corinthians 13:4 ULB)

Sometimes poetry uses grammar differently.

My soul also is very troubled.
But you, Yahweh—how long will this continue?
Return, Yahweh! rescue me.
Save me because of your covenant faithfulness! (Psalm 6:3-4 ULB)

• In the example above, the author interrupts his request for Yahweh to return and rescue him by asking how long his trouble will continue. Interrupting his request helps to show how distressed the author feels.

Translation Strategies

If the style of poetry that is used in the source text would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider using it. If not, here are some other ways of translating it.

1. Translate the poetry using one of your styles of poetry.
2. Translate the poetry using one of your styles of elegant speech.
3. Translate the poetry using your style of ordinary speech.

If you use poetry it may be more beautiful.
If you use ordinary speech it may be more clear.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

Blessed is the man who does not walk in the advice of the wicked,
or stand in the pathway with sinners,
or sit in the assembly of mockers.
But his delight is in the law of Yahweh,
and on his law he meditates day and night. (Psalm 1:1, 2 ULB)

The following are examples of how people might translate Psalm 1:1, 2.

1. Translate the poetry using one of your styles of poetry.

• The style in this example uses rhythm and rhyming words. It is adapted from the Scottish Psalter of 1650, which is in the public domain.
• That man has perfect blessedness,
  who does not walk astray
  in counsel of ungodly men
  or stand in sinners way.
  Nor does he sit in scorner’s chair,
  but places his delight
  upon God’s law, and meditates
  on God’s law day and night.
  
  

1. Translate the poetry using your style of elegant speech.

• This is the kind of person who is truly blessed: the one who does not follow the advice of wicked people, or stop along the road to speak with sinners, or join the gathering of those who mock God. Rather he takes great joy in Yahweh's law, and he meditates on it day and night.

1. Translate the poetry using your style of ordinary speech.

• The people who do not listen to the advice of bad people are really happy. They do not spend time with people who continually do evil things or with those who do not respect God. They love to obey Yahweh's law, and they think about it all the time.

Proverbs

Description

Proverbs are short sayings that give wisdom or teach a truth. People enjoy proverbs because they give a lot of wisdom in few words. Proverbs in the Bible often use metaphor and parallelism.

Reasons this is a translation issue

Each language has its own ways of saying proverbs. There are many proverbs in the Bible. They need to be translated in the way that people say proverbs in your language, so that people recognize them as proverbs and understand what they teach.

Examples from the Bible

A good name is to be chosen over great riches, and favor is better than silver and gold. (Proverbs 22:1 ULB)

This means that it is better to be a good person and to have a good reputation than it is to have a lot of money.

Like vinegar on the teeth and smoke in the eyes, so is the lazy person to those who send him. (Proverbs 10:26 ULB)

This means that a lazy person is very annoying to those who send him to do something.

The way of Yahweh protects those who have integrity, but it is destruction for the wicked. (Proverbs 10:29 ULB)

This means that Yahweh protects people who do what is right, but he destroys those who are wicked.

Hatred stirs up conflicts, but love covers over all offenses. (Proverbs 10:12 ULB)

This means that when people hate others, they are likely to fight. But if they love others, they will forgive the wrongs that others have done to them.

Look at the ant, you lazy person, consider her ways, and be wise. It has no commander, officer, or ruler, yet it prepares its food in the summer, and during the harvest it stores up what it will eat. (Proverbs 6:6-8 ULB)

This proverb encourages people not to be lazy but to work so they can have what they need.

Translation Strategies

If translating a proverb literally would be natural and give the right meaning in your language, consider doing that. If not, here are some options:

1. Find out how people say proverbs in your language, and use one of those ways.
2. If certain objects in the proverb are not known to many people in your language group, consider replacing them with objects that people know and that function in the same way in your language.
3. Substitute a proverb in your language that has the same teaching as the proverb in the Bible.
4. Give the same teaching but not in a form of a proverb.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Find out how people say proverbs in your language, and use one of those ways.

• A good name is to be chosen over great riches, and favor is better than silver and gold. (Proverbs 22:1 ULB)

  Here are some ideas for ways that people might say a proverb in their language.

  • It is better to have a good name than to have great riches, and to be favored by people than to have silver and gold.
  • Wise people choose a good name over great riches, and favor over silver and gold.
  • Try to have a good reputation rather than great riches.
  • Will riches really help you? I would rather have a good reputation.

1. If certain objects in the proverb are not known to many people in your language group, consider replacing them with objects that people know and that function in the same way in your language.

   • Like snow in summer or rain in harvest, so a fool does not deserve honor. (Proverbs 26:1 ULB)
     • It is not natural for a cold wind to blow in the hot season or for it to rain in the harvest season; And it is not natural to honor a foolish person.

2. Substitute a proverb in your language that has the same teaching as the proverb in the Bible.

   • Do not boast about tomorrow. (Proverbs 27:1 ULB)
     • Do not count your chickens before they hatch.

3. Give the same teaching but not in a form of a proverb.

   • A generation that curses their father and does not bless their mother, that is a generation that is pure in their own eyes, but they are not washed of their filth. (Proverbs 30:11-12 ULB)
     • People who do not respect their parents think that they are righteous, and they do not turn away from their sin.

Symbolic Language

Description

Symbolic language in speech and writing is the use of symbols to represent other things and events. In the Bible it occurs most in prophecy and poetry, especially in visions and dreams about things that will happen in the future. Though people may not immediately know the meaning of a symbol, it is important to keep the symbol in the translation.

Purposes of symbolism

• One purpose of symbolism is to help people understand the importance or severity of an event by putting it in other, very dramatic terms.
• Another purpose of symbolism is to tell some people about something while hiding the true meaning from others who do not understand the symbolism.

Reasons this is a translation issue

People who read the Bible today may find it hard to recognize that the language is symbolic, and they may not know what the symbol stands for.

Translation principles

• When symbolic language is used, it is important to keep the symbol in the translation.
• It is also important not to explain the symbol more than the original speaker or writer did, since he may not have wanted everyone living then to be able to understand it easily.

Examples from the Bible

Eat this scroll, then go speak to the house of Israel. (Ezekiel 3:1 ULB)

Ezekiel had a dream, and in his dream he was told to eat a scroll. Eating the scroll is a symbol of reading and understanding well what was written on the scroll, and accepting the words from God into himself.

After this I saw in the visions of the night a fourth animal, terrifying, frightening, and very strong. It had large iron teeth; it devoured, broke in pieces, and trampled underfoot what was left. It was different from the other animals, and it had ten horns. (Daniel 7:7 ULB)

The meaning of the underlined symbols is explained in Daniel 7:23-24 as shown below. The animals represent kingdoms, iron teeth represent a powerful army, and the horns represent powerful leaders.

This is what that person said, 'As for the fourth animal, it will be a fourth kingdom on earth that will be different from all the other kingdoms. It will devour the whole earth, and it will trample it down and break it into pieces. As for the ten horns, out of this kingdom ten kings will arise, and another will arise after them. He will be different from the previous ones, and he will conquer the three kings. (Daniel 7:23-24 ULB)

I turned around to see whose voice was speaking to me, and as I turned I saw seven golden lampstands. In the middle of the lampstands there was one like a Son of Man.... He had seven stars in his right hand, and a sword with two sharp edges was coming out of his mouth.... As for the hidden meaning about the seven stars you saw in my right hand, and the seven golden lampstands: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches, and the seven lampstands are the seven churches. (Revelation 1:12, 16, 20 ULB)

This passage explains the meaning of the seven lampstands and the seven stars. The two-edged sword represents God's word and judgment.

Translation Strategies

1. Translate the text with the symbols. Often the speaker or author explains the meaning later in the passage.
2. Translate the text with the symbols. Then explain the symbols in footnotes.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Translate the text with the symbols. Often the speaker or author explains the meaning later in the passage.

• After this I saw in the visions of night a fourth animal, terrifying, frightening, and very strong. It had large iron teeth; it devoured, broke in pieces, and trampled underfoot what was left. It was different from the other animals, and it had ten horns. (Daniel 7:7 ULB)
  
  People will be able to understand what the symbols mean when they read the explanation in Daniel 7:23-24:

  • As for the fourth animal ... It will devour ... As for the ten horns ...

2. Translate the text with the symbols. Then explain the symbols in footnotes.

• After this I saw the visions of night a fourth animal, terrifying, frightening, and very strong. It had large iron teeth; it devoured, broke in pieces, and trampled underfoot what was left. It was different from the other animals, and it had ten horns. (Daniel 7:7 ULB)
  • After this I saw the visions of at night a fourth animal,^[1] terrifying, frightening, and very strong. It had large iron teeth;^[2] it devoured, broke in pieces, and trampled underfoot what was left. It was different from the other animals, and it had ten horns.<sup>[3]
    
    [1]</sup> The animal is a symbol for a kingdom.
    ^[2] The iron teeth is a symbol for the kingdom's powerful army.
    ^[3] The horns are a symbol of powerful kings.

Symbolic Prophecy

Description

Symbolic prophecy is a type of message that God gave to a prophet so that the prophet would tell others. These messages use images and symbols to show what God will do in the future.

The main books that have these prophecies are Isaiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Zechariah, and Revelation. Shorter examples of symbolic prophecy are also found in other books, such as in Matthew 24, Mark 13, and Luke 21.

The Bible tells both how God gave each message and what the message was. When God gave the messages, he often did so in miraculous ways such as in dreams and visions. When prophets saw these dreams and visions, they often saw images and symbols about God and heaven. Some of these images are a throne, golden lamp stands, a powerful man with white hair and white clothes, and eyes like fire and legs like bronze. Some of these images were seen by more than one prophet.

The prophecies about the world also contain images and symbols. For example, in some of the prophecies strong animals represent kingdoms, horns represent kings or kingdoms, a dragon or serpent represents the devil, the sea represents the nations, and weeks represent longer periods of time. Some of these images were also seen by more than one prophet.

The prophecies tell about the evil in this world, how God will judge the world and punish sin, and how God will establish his righteous kingdom in the new world he is creating. They also tell about things that will happen concerning heaven and hell.

Much of prophecy in the Bible is presented as poetry. In some cultures people assume that if something is said in poetry, then it might not be true or very important. However, the prophecies in the Bible are true and very important, whether they are presented in poetic forms or non-poetic forms.

Sometimes the past tense is used in these books for events that happened in the past. However, sometimes the past tense is used for events that would happen in the future. There are two reasons for us. When prophets told about things that they saw in a dream or vision, they often used the past tense because their dream was in the past. The other reason for using the past tense to refer to future events was to emphasize that those events would certainly happen. The events were so certain to happen, it was as if they had already happened. We call this second use of the past tense "the predictive past." See Predictive Past.

Some of these things happened after the prophets told about them, and some of them will happen at the end of this world.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Some of the images are hard to understand because we have never seen things like them before.
• Descriptions of things that we have never seen or that do not exist in this world are hard to translate.
• If God or the prophet used the past tense, readers may have difficulty knowing wehther he was talking about something that had aleady happened or something that would happen later.

Translation principles

• Translate the images in the text. Do not try to interpret them and translate their meaning.
• When an image appears in more than one place in the Bible, and it is described in the same way, try to translate it the same way in all those places.
• If either poetic forms or non-poetic forms would imply to your readers that the prophecy is not true or is unimportant, use a form that would not imply those things.
• Sometimes it is difficult to understand in what order the events described in the various prophecies happen. Simply write them as they appear in each prophecy.
• Translate tense in a way that the readers can understand what the speaker meant. If readers would not understand the predictive past, it is acceptable to use the future tense.
• Some of the prophecies were fulfilled after the prophets wrote about them. Some of them have not been fulfilled yet. Do not clarify in the prophecy when these prophecies were fulfilled or how they were fulfilled.

Examples from the Bible

The following passages describe powerful beings that Ezekiel, Daniel, and John saw. Images that come up in these visions include hair that is white as wool, a voice like many waters, a golden belt, and legs or feet like polished bronze. Though the prophets saw various details, it would be good to translate the details that are the same in the same way. The underlined phrases in the passage from Revelation also occur in the passages from Daniel and Ezekiel

In the middle of the lampstands there was one like a Son of Man, wearing a long robe that reached down to his feet, and a golden belt around his chest. His head and hair were as white as wool — as white as snow, and his eyes were like a flame of fire. His feet were like burnished bronze, like bronze that had been refined in a furnace, and his voice was like the sound of many rushing waters. He had in his right hand seven stars, and coming out of his mouth was a sharp two-edged sword. His face was shining like the sun at its strongest shining. (Revelation 1:13-16)

As I looked, thrones were set in place, and the Ancient of Days took his seat. His clothing was as white as snow, and the hair of his head was like pure wool. (Daniel 7:9 ULB)

I looked up and saw a man dressed in linen, with a belt around his waist made of pure gold from Uphaz. His body was like topaz, his face was like lightning, his eyes were like flaming torches, his arms and his feet were like polished bronze, and the sound of his words was like the sound of a great crowd. (Daniel 10:5-6)

Behold! The glory of the God of Israel came from the east; his voice was like the sound of many waters, and the earth shone with his glory. (Ezekiel 43:2 ULB)

The following passage shows the use of the past tense to refer to past events. The underlined verbs refer to past events.

The vision of Isaiah son of Amoz, that he saw concerning Judah and Jerusalem, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah. Hear, heavens, and give ear, earth; for Yahweh has spoken: "I have nourished and brought up children, but they have rebelled against me. (Isaiah 1:1-2 ULB)

The following passage shows the future tense and different uses of the past tense. The underlined verbs are examples of the predictive past, where the past tense is used to show that the events certainly will happen.

The gloom will be dispelled from her who was in anguish. In an earlier time he humiliated the land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali, but in the later time he will make it glorious, the way to the sea, beyond the Jordan, Galilee of the nations. The people who walked in darkness have seen a great light; those who have lived in the land of the shadow of death, the light has shone on them. (Isaiah 9:1-2 ULB)

Translating Son and Father

Wycliffe Associates supports Bible translations that represent the concepts "Father" and "Son" when they refer to God.

Biblical Witness

"Father" and "Son" are names that God calls himself in the Bible. The Bible shows that God called Jesus his Son:

After he was baptized, Jesus came up immediately from the water, and ... a voice came out of the heavens saying, "This is my beloved Son. I am very pleased with him." (Matthew 3:16-17 ULB)

The Bible shows that Jesus called God his Father:

Jesus said, "I praise you Father, Lord of heaven and earth ... no one knows the Son except the Father, and no one knows the Father except the Son" (Matthew 11:25-27 ULB) (See also: John 6:26-57)

Christians have found that "Father" and "Son" are the ideas that most essentially describe the eternal relationship of the First and Second Persons of the Trinity to each other. The Bible indeed refers to them in various ways, but no other terms reflect the eternal love and intimacy between these Persons, nor the interdependent eternal relationship between them.

Jesus referred to God in the following terms:

Baptize them into the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit. (Matthew 28:19 ULB)

The intimate, loving relationship between the Father and the Son is eternal, just as they are eternal.

The Father loves the Son.... (John 3:35-36; 5:19-20 ULB)

... the world will know that I love the Father, I do just as the Father commanded me. (John 14:31 ULB)

... no one knows who the Son is except the Father, and no one knows who the Father is except the Son. (Luke 10:22 ULB)

The terms "Father" and "Son" also communicate that the Father and the Son are of the same essence; they are both eternal God.

Jesus ... said, "Father, glorify your Son so that the Son may glorify you ... I glorified you on the earth ... Now Father, glorify me ... with the glory that I had with you before the world was created." (John 17:1-5)

But in these last days, [God the Father] has spoken to us through a Son, whom he appointed to be the heir of all things. It is through him that God also made the universe. He is the brightness of God's glory, the exact representation of his being. He even holds everything together by the word of his power. (Hebrews 1:2-3 ULB)

Jesus said to him, "I have been with you for so long and you still do not know me, Philip? Whoever has seen me has seen the Father. How can you say, 'Show us the Father'? (John 14:9 ULB)

Human Relationships

Human fathers and sons are not perfect, but the Bible still uses those terms for the Father and Son, who are perfect.

Just as today, human father-son relationships during Bible times were never as loving or perfect as the relationship between Jesus and his Father. But this does not mean that the translator should avoid the concepts of father and son. The scriptures use these terms to refer to God, the perfect Father and Son, as well as to sinful human fathers and sons. In referring to God as Father and Son, choose words in your language that are widely used to refer to a human "father" and "son." In this way you will communicate that God the Father and God the Son are essentially the same (they are both God), just as a human father and son are essentially the same, both human and sharing the same characteristics.

Translation Strategies

1. Think through all the possibilities that your language has to translate the words "son" and "father." Determine which words in your language best represent the divine "Son" and "Father."
2. If your language has more than one word for "son," use the word that has the closest meaning to "only son" (or "first son" if necessary).
3. If your language has more than one word for "father," use the word that has the closest meaning to "birth father," rather than "adoptive father."

See the pages for "God the Father" and "Son of God" in Translation Words for help with translating "Father" and "Son."

Son of God and God the Father

God is one being, and he exists as the Holy Trinity, that is, as the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

One God

The Bible teaches that there is only one God.

In the Old Testament:

Yahweh, he is God, and there is no other God!! (1 Kings 8:60 ULB)

In the New Testament:

Jesus said,... "This is eternal life: That they know you, the only true God". (John 17:3 ULB)

(See also: Deuteronomy 4:35, Ephesians 4:5-6, 1 Timothy 2:5, James 2:19)

Three Persons: Old Testament Revelation

The Old Testament begins to reveal God's three persons.

God created the heavens ... The Spirit of God was moving ... "Let us make man in our image." (Genesis 1:1-2, 26 ULB)

But in these last days, he has spoken to us through a Son, whom he appointed to be the heir of all things. ... But to the Son he says, "Your throne, God, is forever and ever. The scepter of your kingdom is the scepter of justice. ... In the beginning, Lord, you laid the earth's foundation. The heavens are the work of your hands." (Hebrews 1:2, 10 ULB, quoting Psalm 45:6; 102:25)

Three Persons: New Testament Teaching

The Church has always found it necessary to state what the New Testament says about God by affirming that he exists in three distinct persons: The Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit.

Jesus said, "...Baptize them into the name of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit." (Matthew 28:19 ULB)

God sent out his Son, born of a woman ... God has sent into our hearts the Spirit of his Son, who calls out, "Abba, Father." (Galatians 4:4-6 ULB)

See also: John 14:16-17, 1 Peter 1:2

Each person of God is fully God and is called "God" in the Bible.

Yet for us there is only one God, the Father ... (1 Corinthians 8:6 ULB)

Thomas answered and said to him, "My Lord and my God." Jesus said to him, "Because you have seen me, you have believed. Blessed are those who have not seen, and believed." (John 20:28-29 ULB)

But Peter said, "Ananias, why has Satan filled your heart to lie to the Holy Spirit and to keep back part of the price of the land?... You have not lied to men, but to God." (Acts 5:3-4 ULB)

Each person is also distinct from the other two persons. All three persons can appear separately at the same time. In the verses below, God the Son is baptized while God the Spirit comes down and God the Father speaks from heaven.

After he was baptized, Jesus came up ... from the water.... He saw the Spirit of God coming down ... and a voice [the Father's] came out of the heavens saying, "This is my Beloved Son...." (Matthew 3:16-17 ULB)

Textual Variants

Description

Thousands of years ago, people wrote the books of the Bible. Other people then copied them by hand and translated them. They did this work very carefully, and over the years many people made thousands of copies. However people who looked at them later saw that there were small differences between them. Some copiers accidentally left out some words, and some mistook a word for another that looked like it. Occasionally they added words or even whole sentences, either by accident, or because they wanted to explain something. Modern Bibles are translations of the old copies. Some modern Bibles have some of these sentences that were added. In the ULB, these added sentences are usually written in footnotes.

Bible scholars have read many old copies and compared them with each other. For each place in the Bible where there was a difference, they have figured out which wordings are most likely correct. The translators of the ULB based the ULB on wordings that scholars say are most likely correct. Because people who use the ULB may have access to Bibles that are based on other copies, the ULB translators included footnotes that tell about some of the differences between them.

Translators are encouraged to translate the text in the ULB and to write about added sentences in footnotes, as is done in the ULB. However, if the local church really wants those sentences to be included in the main text, translators may put them in the text and include a footnote about them.

Examples from the Bible

Matthew 18:10-11 ULB has a footnote about verse 11.

¹⁰See that you do not despise any of these little ones. For I say to you that in heaven their angels always look on the face of my Father who is in heaven. ^11[1][1]The best ancient Greek copies do not have the sentence that some translations include, For the Son of Man came to save that which was lost.

John 7:53-8:11 is not in the best earliest manuscripts. It has been included in the ULB, but it is marked off with square brackets ([ ]) at the beginning and end, and there is a footnote after verse 11.

⁵³[Then every man went to his own house. ... ¹¹She said, "No one, Lord." Jesus said, "Neither do I condemn you. Go and sin no more."]<sup>[2]

[2]</sup>The best ancient copies do not have John 7:53-8:11.

Translation Strategies

When there is a textual variant, you may choose to follow the ULB or another version that you have access to.

1. Translate the verses that the ULB does and include the footnote that the ULB provides.
2. Translate the verses as another version does, and change the footnote so that it fits this situation.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

The translation strategies are applied to Mark 7:14-16 ULB, which has a footnote about verse 16.

• ¹⁴He called the crowd again and said to them, "Listen to me, all of you, and understand. ¹⁵There is nothing from outside of a person that can defile him when it enters into him. It is what comes out of the person that defiles him." <sup>16[1]
  
  [1]</sup>The best ancient copies do not have verse 16. If any man has ears to hear, let him hear.

1. Translate the verses that the ULB does and include the footnote that the ULB provides.

   • ¹⁴He called the crowd again and said to them, "Listen to me, all of you, and understand. ¹⁵There is nothing from outside of a person that can defile him when it enters into him. It is what comes out of the person that defiles him." <sup>16[1]
     
     [1]</sup>The best ancient copies do not have verse 16. If any man has ears to hear, let him hear.

2. Translate the verses as another version does, and change the footnote so that it fits this situation.

   • ¹⁴He called the crowd again and said to them, "Listen to me, all of you, and understand. ¹⁵There is nothing from outside of a person that can defile him when it enters into him. It is what comes out of the person that defiles him. ¹⁶If any man has ears to hear, let him hear." <sup>[1]
     
     [1]</sup>The best ancient copies do not have verse 16.

Verse Bridges

Description

In rare cases, you will see in the Unlocked Dynamic Bible (UDB) that two or more verse numbers are combined, such as 17-18. This is called a verse bridge. This means that the information in the verses was rearranged so that the story or message could be more easily understood.

Examples from the Bible

In Genesis 47:1-2, the author tells about how Joseph introduced his brothers to Pharaoh before telling that Joseph took his brother to Pharaoh.

¹Then Joseph went in and told Pharaoh, "My father and my brothers, their flocks, their herds, and all that they own, have arrived from the land of Canaan. See, they are in the land of Goshen." ²He took five of his brothers and introduced them to Pharaoh. (Genesis 47:1-2 ULB)

In the UDB the information is rearranged to show the order in which the events happened.

^1-2Joseph chose five of his brothers to go with him to talk to the king. He introduced them to the king, and then he said, "My father and my brothers have come from Canaan land. They have brought all their sheep, goats, cattle, and everything else that they own, and they are living now in region of Goshen." (Genesis 47:1-2 UDB)

In Genesis 36:29-30, the author tells about the clans of the Horites being in the land of Seir after he lists the clans.

²⁹These were the clans of the Horites: Lotan, Shobal, Zibeon, and Anah, ³⁰Dishon, Ezer, Dishan. These were clans of the Horites, according to their clan lists in the land of Seir. (Genesis 36:29-30 ULB)

In the UDB, the the information about the Horites living in Seir is given first and is followed by the list of Horite clans. For many languages, this is a more logical order of information.

^29-30The people groups who were descendants of Hor lived in Seir land. The names of the people groups are Lotan, Shobal, Zibeon, Anah, Dishon, Ezer, and Dishan. (Genesis 36:29-30 UDB)

Translation Strategy

Order the information in a way that will be clear to your readers.

1. If you put information from one verse before information from an earlier verse, put the first and last verse numbers at the beginning with a hyphen between them.

See how to mark verses in the translationStudio APP.

Examples of Translation Strategy Applied

1. If you put information from one verse before information from an earlier verse, put the first and last verse numbers at the beginning with a hyphen between them.

• ²you must select three cities for yourself in the middle of your land that Yahweh your God is giving you to possess. ³You must build a road and divide the borders of your land into three parts, the land that Yahweh your God is causing you to inherit, so that everyone who kills another person may flee there. (Deuteronomy 19:2-3)
  • ^2-3you must divide into three parts the land that he is giving to you. Then select a city in each part. You must make good roads in order that people can get to those cities easily. Someone who kills another person can escape to one of those cities to be safe. (Deuteronomy 19:2-3 UDB)
• ⁴⁰These were the names of the heads of clans from Esau's descendants, according to their clans and their regions, by their names: Timna, Alvah, Jetheth, ⁴¹ Oholibamah, Elah, Pinon, ⁴² Kenaz, Teman, Mibzar, ⁴³ Magdiel, and Iram. These were the clan heads of Edom, according to their settlements in the land they possessed. This was Esau, the father of the Edomites. (Genesis 36:40-43 ULB)
  • ^40-43Here is a list of all the people groups that were descendants of Esau: Timna, Alvah, Jetheth, Oholibamah, Elah, Pinon, Kenaz, Teman, Mibzar, Magdiel, and Iram. They all lived in the land of Edom. The land where each people group lived got the same name as the name of the people group. (Genesis 36:40-43 UDB)

Translate Unknowns

Description

Unknowns are things that occur in the source text that are not known to the people of your culture. The Translation Words pages and the Translation Notes will help you understand what they are. After you understand them, you will need to find ways to refer to those things so that people who read your translation will understand what they are.

We have here only five loaves of bread and two fish. (Matthew 14:17 ULB)

Bread is a particular food made by mixing finely crushed grains with oil, and then cooking the mixture so that it is dry. (Grains are the seeds of a kind of grass.) In some cultures people do not have bread or know what it is.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Readers may not know some of the things that are in the Bible because those things are not part of their own culture.
• Readers may have difficulty understanding a text if they do not know some of the things that are mentioned in it.

Translation principles

• Use words that are already part of your language if possible.
• Keep expressions short if possible.
• Represent God's commands and historical facts accurately.

Examples from the Bible

So I will turn Jerusalem into piles of ruins, a hideout for jackals. (Jeremiah 9:11 ULB)

Jackals are wild animals like dogs that live in only a few parts of the world. So they are not known in many places.

Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep's clothing but are truly ravenous wolves. (Matthew 7:15 ULB)

If wolves do not live where the translation will be read, the readers may not understand that they are fierce, wild animals like dogs that attack and eat sheep.

Then they tried to give Jesus wine mixed with myrrh, but he did not drink it. (Mark 15:23 ULB)

People may not know what myrrh is and that it was used as a medicine.

... to him who made great lights ... (Psalm 136:7 ULB)

Some languages have terms for things that give light, like the sun and fire, but they have no general term for lights.

your sins ... will be white like snow ... (Isaiah 1:18 ULB)

People in many parts of the world have not seen snow, but they may have seen it in pictures.

Translation Strategies

Here are ways you might translate a term that is not known in your language:

1. Use a phrase that describes what the unknown item is, or what is important about the unknown item for the verse being translated.
2. Substitute something similar from your language if doing so does not falsely represent a historical fact.
3. Copy the word from another language, and add a general word or descriptive phrase to help people understand it.
4. Use a word that is more general in meaning.
5. Use a word or phrase that is more specific in meaning.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. Use a phrase that describes what the unknown item is, or what is important about the unknown item for the verse being translated.

• Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep's clothing but are truly ravenous wolves. (Matthew 7:15 ULB)
  • Beware of false prophets, who come to you in sheep's clothing but are truly hungry and dangerous animals.

"Ravenous wolves" is part of a metaphor here, so the reader needs to know that they are very dangerous to sheep in order to understand this metaphor. (If sheep are also unknown, then you will need to also use one of the translation strategies to translate sheep, or change the metaphor to something else, using a translation strategy for metaphors. See Translating Metaphors.)

• We have here only five loaves of bread and two fish. (Matthew 14:17 ULB)
  • We have here only five loaves of baked grain seeds and two fish

1. Substitute something similar from your language if doing so does not falsely represent a historical fact.

• your sins ... will be white like snow (Isaiah 1:18 ULB) This verse is not about snow. It uses snow in a figure of speech to help people understand how white something will be.
  • your sins ... will be white like milk
  • your sins ... will be white like the moon

1. Copy the word from another language, and add a general word or descriptive phrase to help people understand it.

• Then they tried to give Jesus wine mixed with myrrh, but he refused to drink it. (Mark 15:23 ULB) - People may understand better what myrrh is if it is used with the general word "medicine."
  • Then they tried to give Jesus wine mixed with a medicine called myrrh, but he refused to drink it.
• We have here only five loaves of bread and two fish. (Matthew 14:17 ULB) - People may understand better what bread is if it is used with a phrase that tells what it is made of (seeds) and how it is prepared (crushed and baked).
  • We have here only five loaves of baked crushed seed bread and two fish.

1. Use a word that is more general in meaning.

• So I will turn Jerusalem into piles of ruins, a hideout for jackals. (Jeremiah 9:11 ULB)
  • So I will turn Jerusalem into piles of ruins, a hideout for wild dogs.
• We have here only five loaves of bread and two fish (Matthew 14:17 ULB)
  • We have here only five loaves of baked food and two fish.

1. Use a word or phrase that is more specific in meaning.

• ... to him who made great lights ... (Psalm 136:7 ULB)
  • ... to him who made the sun and the moon ...

Borrow Words

Description

The Bible has words for things that may not be part of your culture, and so your language may not have words for them. It also includes people and places that you may not have names for.

When that happens, you can "borrow" the word or the name into your own language. This means that you basically copy it from the other language. This page tells how to "borrow" words. (There are also other ways to translate words for things that are not in your language. See Translate Unknowns.)

Examples from the Bible

Seeing a fig tree on the roadside ... (Matthew 21:19 ULB)

If there are no fig trees where your language is spoken, there might not be a name for this kind of tree in your language.

Above him were the seraphim; each one had six wings; with two each covered his face, and with two he covered his feet, and with two he flew. (Isaiah 6:2 ULB)

Your language might not have a name for this kind of creature.

The declaration of the word of Yahweh to Israel by the hand of Malachi. (Malachi 1:1 ULB)

Malachi might not be a name that people who speak your language use.

Translation Strategies

There are several things to be aware of when borrowing words from another language.

• Different languages use different scripts, such as the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Cyrillic, Devanagari, and Korean scripts. These scripts use different shapes to represent the letters in their alphabets.
• Languages that use the same script might pronounce the letters in that script differently. For example, when speaking German, people pronounce the letter "j" the same way that people pronounce the letter "y" when speaking English.
• Languages do not all have the same sounds or combinations of sounds. For example, many languages do not have the soft "th" sound in the English word "think," and some languages cannot start a word with a combination of sounds like "st" as in "stop."

There are several ways to borrow a word.

1. If your language uses a different script from the language you are translating from, you can simply substitute each letter shape with the corresponding letter shape of the script of your language.
2. You can spell the word as the other language spells it, and pronounce it the way your language normally pronounces those letters.
3. You can pronounce the word similarly to the way the other language does, and adjust the spelling to fit the rules of your language.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If your language uses a different script from the language you are translating from, you can simply substitute each letter shape with the corresponding letter shape of the script of your language.

• צְפַנְיָ֤ה - A man's name in Hebrew letters.
  • Zephaniah - The same name in Roman letters

1. You can spell the word as the other language spells it, and pronounce it the way your language normally pronounces those letters.

• Zephaniah - This is a man's name.
  • Zephaniah - The name as it is spelled in English, but you can pronounce it according to the rules of your language.

1. You can pronounce the word similarly to the way the other language does, and adjust the spelling to fit the rules of your language.

• Zephaniah - If your language does not have the "z", you could use "s". If your writing system does not use "ph" you could use "f". Depending on how you pronounce the "i" you could spell it with "i" or "ai" or "ay".
  • Sefania
  • Sefanaia
  • Sefanaya

How to Translate Names

Description

The Bible has names of many people, groups of people, and places. Some of these names may sound strange and be hard to say. Sometimes readers may not know what a name refers to, and sometimes they may need to understand what a name means. This page will help you see how you can translate these names and how you can help people understand what they need to know about them.

Reasons this is a translation issue

• Readers may not know some of the names in the Bible. They may not know whether a name refers to a person or place or something else.
• Readers may need to understand the meaning of a name in order to understand the passage.
• Some names may have different sounds or combinations of sounds that are not used in your language or are unpleasant to say in your language. For strategies to address this problem, see Borrow Words.
• Some people and places in the Bible have two names. Readers may not realize that two names refer to the same person or place.

Examples from the Bible

If readers do not know a particular name, they may not know what kind of thing it refers to.

You went over the Jordan and came to Jericho. The leaders of Jericho fought against you, along with the Amorites ... (Joshua 24:11 ULB)

• Readers might not know that "Jordan" is the name of a river, "Jericho" is the name of a city, and "Amorites" is the name of a group of people.

Though most names in the Bible have meaning, most of the time, they are used simply to identify the people and places they refer to.

It was this Melchizedek, king of Salem, priest of God Most High, who met Abraham returning from the slaughter of the kings and blessed him. (Hebrews 7:1 ULB)

Sometimes the meaning of a name is especially important because it tells something about the person or thing that has that name.

First, the translation of his name means, "king of righteousness"; then he is also "king of Salem," that is, "king of peace." (Hebrews 7:2 ULB)

• The author of Hebrews explains the meaning of the name "Melchizedek" and the title "king of Salem."

... she said, "Do I really continue to see, even after he has seen me?" Therefore the well was called Beer Lahai Roi; (Genesis 16:13-14 ULB)

• Readers may not understand the second sentence if they do not know that "Beer Lahai Roi" means "Well of the Living One who sees me."

She named him Moses and said, "Because I drew him from the water." (Exodus 2:10 ULB)

• Readers may not understand why she said this if they do not know that the name Moses sounds like the Hebrew words "pull out."

Some people had places have more than one name.

Saul was in agreement with his death. (Acts 8:1 ULB)

It came about in Iconium that Paul and Barnabas entered together into the synagogue ... (Acts 14:1 ULB)

• Readers may not know that the names Saul and Paul refer to the same person.

Translation Strategies

1. If readers cannot easily understand from the context what kind of a thing a name refers to, you can add a word to clarify it.
2. If readers need to understand the meaning of a name in order to understand what is said about it, copy the name and tell about its meaning either in the text or in a footnote.
3. Or if readers need to understand the meaning of a name in order to understand what is said about it, and that name is used only once, translate the meaning of the name instead of copying the name.
4. If a person or place has two different names, use one name most of the time and the other name only when the text tells about the person or place having more than one name or when it says something about why the person or place was given that name. Write a footnote when the source text uses the name that is used less frequently.
5. Or if a person or place has two different names, then use whatever name is given in the source text, and add a footnote that gives the other name.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If readers cannot easily understand from the context what kind of a thing a name refers to, you can add a word to clarify it.

   • You went over the Jordan and came to Jericho. The leaders of Jericho fought against you, along with the Amorites ... (Joshua 24:11 ULB)
     • You went over the Jordan River and came to the city of Jericho. The leaders of Jericho fought against you, along with the tribe of the Amorites ...
   • Shortly after, some Pharisees came and said to him, "Go and leave here because Herod wants to kill you." (Luke 13:31 ULB)
     • Shortly after, some Pharisees came and said to him, "Go and leave here because King Herod wants to kill you.

2. If readers need to understand the meaning of a name in order to understand what is said about it, copy the name and tell about its meaning either in the text or in a footnote.

   • She named him Moses and said, "Because I drew him from the water." (Exodus 2:11 ULB)
     • She named him Moses, which sounds like 'drawn out,' and said, "Because I drew him from the water."

3. Or if readers need to understand the meaning of a name in order to understand what is said about it, and that name is used only once, translate the meaning of the name instead of copying the name.

   • ... she said, "Do I really continue to see, even after he has seen me?" Therefore the well was called Beer Lahai Roi; (Genesis 16:13-14 ULB)
     • ... she said, "Do I really continue to see, even after he has seen me?" Therefore the well was called Well of the Living One who sees me;

4. If a person or place has two different names, use one name most of the time and the other name only when the text tells about the person or place having more than one name or when it says something about why the person or place was given that name. Write a footnote when the source text uses the name that is used less frequently.

• One man is called "Saul" before Acts 13 and "Paul" after Acts 13. You could translate his name as "Paul" all of the time, except in Acts 13:9 where it talks about him having both names.
• ... a young man named Saul. (Acts 7:58 ULB)
  • ... a young man named Paul.^[1]
    • The footnote would look like: ^[1]Most versions say Saul here, but most of the time in the Bible he is called Paul.
• But Saul, who is also called Paul ... (Acts 13:9)
  • But Saul, who is also called Paul ...

1. Or if a person or place has two names, use whatever name is given in the source text, and add a footnote that gives the other name.

• For example, you could write "Saul" where the source text has "Saul" and "Paul" where the source text has "Paul."
• ... a young man named Saul. (Acts 7:58 ULB)
  • ... a young man named Saul.^[1]
    • The footnote would look like: ^[1]This is the same man who is called Paul beginning in Acts 13:9.
• It came about in Iconium that Paul and Barnabas entered together into the synagogue ... (Acts 14:1 ULB)
  • It came about in Iconium that Paul^[1] and Barnabas entered together into the synagogue ...
    • The footnote would look like: ^[1]This is the man who is called Saul before Acts 13.

Assumed Knowledge and Implicit Information

Description

When someone speaks or writes, he has something specific that he wants people to know or do or think about. He normally states this directly. This is explicit information.

The speaker assumes that his audience already knows certain things that they will need to think about in order to understand what he says. Normally he does not tell people these things, because they already know them. This is called assumed knowledge.

The speaker does not always directly state everything that he expects his audience to learn from what he says. Information that he expects people to learn from what he says even though he does not state it directly is implicit information.

Often, the audience understands this implicit information by combining what they already know (assumed knowledge) with what the speaker tells them directly (explicit information).

Reasons this is a translation issue

All three kinds of information (assumed knowledge, explicit information, and implicit information) are part of the speaker's message. If the audience does not have the knowledge that the speaker assumes they have, they will have trouble understanding the whole message.

The authors of the Bible books wrote for particular audiences who lived in particular places long ago. And the speakers in the Bible spoke to particular audiences who lived long ago. Modern readers may not know some of the things that the people in the Bible and the people who first read it knew. This can make it hard for them to understand what a speaker or writer said, and to learn things that the speaker left implicit. Translators may need to state explicitly some things that the original speaker or writer assumed his audience would know or be able to learn.

Examples from the Bible

Then a scribe came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go." Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head." (Matthew 8:20 ULB)

• Jesus did not say what foxes and birds use holes and nests for, because he assumed that the scribe would have known that foxes sleep in holes in the ground and birds sleep in their nests. This is assumed knowledge.
• Jesus did not directly say here "I am the Son of Man" but, if the scribe did not already know it, then that fact would be implicit information that he could learn because Jesus referred to himself that way. Also, Jesus did not state explicitly that he travelled a lot and did not have a house that he slept in every night. That is implicit information that the scribe could learn when Jesus said that he had nowhere to lay his head.

Woe to you, Chorazin! Woe to you, Bethsaida! If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you. (Matthew 11:21, 22 ULB)

• Jesus assumed that the people he was speaking to knew that Tyre and Sidon were very wicked, and that the day of judgment is a time when God will judge every person. Jesus also knew that the people he was talking to believed that they were good and did not need to repent. Jesus did not need to tell them these things. This is all assumed knowledge.
• An important piece of implicit information here is that because the people he was speaking to did not repent, they would be judged more severely than the people of Tyre and Sidon would be judged.

Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For they do not wash their hands when they eat. (Matthew 15:2 ULB)

• One of the traditions of the elders was a ceremony in which people would wash their hands in order to be ritually clean before eating. People thought that in order to be righteous, they had to follow all the traditions of the elders. This was assumed knowledge that the Pharisees who were speaking to Jesus expected him to know.
• By saying this, they were accusing his disciples of not following the traditions, and thus not being righteous. This is implicit information that they wanted him to understand from what they said.

Translation Strategies

If readers have enough assumed knowledge to be able to understand the full message (with the explicit and implicit information) then it is good to leave the assumed knowledge unstated and leave the implicit information implicit. If the readers do not understand the message because they lack the assumed knowledge, then follow one of these strategies:

1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge explicitly.
2. If readers cannot understand the implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.

Examples of Translation Strategies Applied

1. If readers cannot understand the message because they do not have certain assumed knowledge, then provide that knowledge explicitly.

   • Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head." (Matthew 8:20 ULB)
     • Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes to live in, and the birds of the sky have nests to live in, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head and sleep."
   • But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you. (Matthew 11:22 ULB)
     • But it will be more tolerable for those cities Tyre and Sidon, whose people were very wicked, at the day of judgment than for you.
     • But it will be more tolerable for those wicked cities Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you.
   • Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For they do not wash their hands when they eat. (Matthew 15:2 ULB)
     • Why do your disciples violate the traditions of the elders? For they do not go through the ceremonial handwashing ritual to make them ritually clean when they eat.

2. If readers cannot understand the implicit information, then state that information clearly, but try to do it in a way that does not imply that the information was new to the original audience.

   • Then a scribe came to him and said, "Teacher, I will follow you wherever you go." Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but the Son of Man has nowhere to lay his head." (Matthew 8:19, 20 ULB)
     • Jesus said to him, "Foxes have holes, and the birds of the sky have nests, but I, the Son of Man, have no home to rest in. If you want to follow me, you will live as I live."
   • If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But it will be more tolerable for Tyre and Sidon at the day of judgment than for you (Matthew 11:22 ULB)
     • If the mighty deeds had been done in Tyre and Sidon which were done in you, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But at the day of judgment, God will punish you more severely than he will punish them.
     • If the mighty deeds which were done in you had been done in Tyre and Sidon, they would have repented long ago in sackcloth and ashes. But at the day of judgment, God will punish them less severely than he will punish you.